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ESSENTIALS 

OF 

TEACHING READING 



ESSENTIALS OF 
TEACHING READING 



BY 

E. B. SHERMAN 

Formerly Superintendent of Schools, Columbus, Nebraska 

A. A. REED 

Inspector of Accredited Schools and Professor of Secondary 
Education, University of Nebraska 




THE UNIVERSITY PUBLISHING COMPANY 

CHICAGO — LINCOLN 

1917 



V c 
* \ 



Copyright, 1906 

BT 

THE UNIVERSITY PUBLISHING COMPANY 

T '.. 

Copyright, 1909 

7 »„. BY 

THE UNIVERSITY PUBLISHING COMPANY 



Copyright, 1914 

BY 

THE UNIVERSITY PUBLISHING COMPANY 



Copyright, 1917 

BY 

THE UNIVERSITY PUBLISHING COMPANY 



All Rights Reserved 




JUL 18 1917 

©GI.A476046 



PREFACE 



THIS volume is planned to include methods of teaching 
reading that are of practical value to the teacher im 
any department. Effort has been made to treat effectively 
all that is of real use to the teacher in many lines of reading 
work. All the essential elements that the good teacher of 
reading should know, are considered; all non-essentials are 
omitted. Here in a single volume is included at least the 
minimum of what a teacher of reading should know^. 

No attempt has been made to invent novel methods, or 
to make the book a dictionary of devices. No good thing 
has been omitted because it is old. The authors feel 
pleased rather than chagrined when an experienced teacher 
says, "That plan is not new. I have been using it for 
years." As a matter of fact, all of the methods explained 
have been tested and approved in experience. 

Part Three, including the chapters on Teaching Begin- 
ners to Read, Parts of a Recitation and Assignment of the 
Lesson, Classification of Material, Obstacles to Good Ex- 
pression, Use of the Dictionary, Articulation, and the 
Illustrative Lessons, is the most important part of the 
book. Parts One and Two, The Mechanics of Reading and 
Interpretative Reading, have been placed first in order 
to lay the foundation for the method chapters by showing 
that thought and emotion determine expression. An 
attempt is made throughout to show the teacher how to 
develop all work with the pupil from the thought side. 

The Illustrative Lessons are included with the intention 



vi PREFACE 

of visualizing the work of the teacher as well as of empha- 
sizing some of the most important things in method. 
Effort has been made to make these lessons typical rather 
than brilliant, workable rather than over-laden with device. 
Just such lessons have been seen by the authors in schools 
in widely differing surroundings, and represent the every- 
day work of the good teacher. 

It is with the idea, therefore, of supplying to the teachers 
of elementary schools, to the students of high schools, 
normal schools, and colleges, a simple yet comprehensive 
treatise on reading, methods of teaching reading, and the 
psychological foundation of these methods, that this book 
is offered to the teachers of the country. 

The 'studies" used as 'illustrative Lessons" in Part IV 
are taken from Searson and Martin's "Studies in Read- 
ing" Grades IV to VIII, and are used by special arrange- 
ment with the authors. 

The authors desire to acknowledge their special indebted- 
ness to Dr. L. A. Sherman, Professor of Literature and 
Dean of the Graduate School in the University of Nebraska, 
whose "Analytics of Literature" set higher standards for 
teaching literature in the universities, and whose "Elements 
of Literature and Composition" marks the beginning of 
a new epoch in the teaching of literature and composition 
in high schools. Their special thanks are also due to Lucy 
Williams Tinley, Primary Editor, Council Bluffs, Iowa, for 
her work and counsel in the preparation of the chapters on 
primary reading methods; to former State Superintendent 
W. K. Fowler of Nebraska and to J. W. Searson, Professor 
of English, Kansas State Agricultural College, for expert 
suggestions and help in the preparation of the volume. 

E. B. Sherman 
A. A. Reed 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

The Reading Field ix 

PART I.— THE MECHANICS OF READING 

How Thought and Emotion Determine Expression 

Chapter i, Time 3 

Chapter 2, Grouping 13 

Chapter 3, Emphasis 19 

Chapter 4, Inflection ^ 

Chapter 5, Force > ... 40 

Chapter 6, Quality 46 

PART II — INTERPRETATIVE READING 

How the Reader Must Infer Much of the Author's 

Meaning 
Chapter 7, Types and Figures of Speech . . . . . 57 

Chapter 8, Effects 69 

PART III — METHODS 

How the Teacher May Secure Good Results in Reading 

Chapter 9, Teaching Beginners to Read 83 

Chapter 10, Dramatization in 

Chapter ii,The Reading Recitation and Assignment 

of the Lesson 120 

Chapter 12, Classification of Material 130 

Chapter 13, Obstacles to Good Expression .... 144 

Chapter 14, The Use of the Dictionary 154 

Chapter 15, Articulation 164 

Chapter 16, Illustrative Lesson — An Ordinary Pri- 
mary Lesson 180 

Chapter 17, Illustrative Lesson — What the Inter- 
mediate Teacher Actually Does 188 

Chapter 18, Illustrative Lesson — Silent Reading 

and Expression 200 

PART IV — ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 

How the Teacher May Plan the Reading Work to Give 
It a Natural Appeal to Pupils 

vii 



viii CONTENTS 



Chapter 19, Illustrative Lessons 217 

The Circus-Day Parade . . James Whitcomb Riley 218 

Sharp Wits A Hindu Tale 223 

King Solomon and the Two Mothers . The Bible 228 

Daniel Webster's First Case 232 

Four-Leaf Clover Ella Higginson 236 

The House by the Side of the Road 

'• Sam Walter Foss 240 

A Parable on Brotherly Love Benjamin Franklin 244 

The Gettysburg Address . . Abraham Lincoln 248 

Abou Ben Adhem Leigh Hunt 252 

Wave and Tlde ...... Priscilla Leonard 255 

The New South to New England 

Henry W. Grady 258 

The Recessional Rudyard Kipling 264 

Lincoln, the Great Commoner . Edwin Markham 268 

Index 273 



THE READING FIELD 



Reading, in some form, covers the entire school activity 
of the child. First, the child must learn to read. Second, 
he must read to learn. Third, he must interpret what he 
reads in terms of life. It is as important for a child to read 
intelligently in his arithmetic text, in his geography, and 
in his language book as it is for him to read well from the 
school reader. The best test of a good reader is that he be 
able to read well and to study well the texts in all subjects 
in the course of study. In order, therefore, to teach public 
school reading most effectively, the entire reading activity 
of the child must be understood and appreciated. 



1 


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This diagram, based upon one hundred of the best courses 
of study in reading, shows the child's three-fold reading 
activity in each of the twelve grades. 



IX 



THE READING FIELD 



The first field is that of formal school reading. Here the 
child must be taught to "get the thought, hold the thought, 
and express the thought."* He must become a good oral 
reader. In the second field, which is by far the largest 
field of a child's reading activity, the child must apply his 
formal reading skill to the getting of necessary knowledge. 
Most of his reading is now silent reading and his one motive 
is to use to some definite end the information obtained 
through reading. He must therefore learn how to study as 
well as he once learned how to read. In this field, reading 
is getting the thought, holding the thought, and using the 
thought. In the third field, reading is getting the thought, 
holding the thought, and interpreting the thought in terms 
of life. 

Once the range of a child's reading activity is understood, 
the teacher is enabled to devote her finest energies to the 
teaching of oral and silent reading. In order that the 
child may be given proper incentives and directions to read 
well and to study well, the teacher must have a clear 
appreciation of the mechanics of reading. Time, grouping, 
emphasis, inflection, force, and quality must first be under- 
stood by the teacher if she is to know just what suggestions 
to make to bring the child up to the proper mechanical 
standard. The teacher must also understand the best 
methods of interpretation. If she can direct the child in 
the best methods of thought getting and thought appre- 
ciation, and can develop skill in the mechanical means of 
expressing thought, the child, with practice, is certain to 
becomea good reader. 

* Sarah Louise Arnold: Reading and How to Teach It. 



PART I 



MECHANICS OF READING 



HOW THOUGHT AND EMOTION DETERMINE 
EXPRESSION 



CHAPTER I 
TIME 

The teacher of reading should have a clear idea of the 
importance of thought and emotion in reading. There 
have been two different schools of teaching reading. One 
school devotes the greatest attention to the mechanics of read- 
ing; the other school works from the thought side. Vital 
things are taught by each school. It is necessary that the 
pupil get the thought before he can express it. However, getting 
the thought does not insure giving it. Many a child knows 
what a sentence means, who merely names the words in it. The 
thought must be held in the mind while the reading is done. 
If the child has gotten the thought, and is holding the thought 
in his mind at the time he reads, his expression will be good. 
So far as the pupil is concerned, he need not be compelled to 
study the mechanics of reading. We are satisfied if he gets 
the thought and gives the thought. 

It is necessary, however, for the teacher to have a 
knowledge of the mechanics of reading. If the pupil uses 
poor expression, it is the business of the teacher to recognize the 
cause of the error. It is by a knowledge of the mechanics of 
reading that the teacher locates the trouble. Just so does a 
physician diagnose a case. As it is unnecessary for the patient 
to have the knowledge of the doctor, so it is unnecessary for the 
pupil to have the knowledge of the teacher. If the pupil wishes 
to become a teacher, the case becomes a different one. So the 
knowledge of the functions of Time, Grouping, Emphasis, 
Inflection, Force, and Quality belong to the teacher, not to 
the pupil. To the teacher it is essential for the proper teach- 

3 



ESSENTIALS OF READING 



ing, and is part of the great mass of knowledge drawn upon 
every day of the school year. 

The rate at which a selection, a sentence, a phrase, or 
a word is read is called time. Time is determined by the 
largeness of the thought, or the quality or strength of the 
emotion represented by that selection, sentence, phrase, or 
word. We read Lincoln's Gettysburg Address slowly, for 
each phrase means much. We read Mother Goose's rhymes 
rapidly, for they mean almost nothing at all. If we think what 
we are saying, we repeat the Lord's Prayer and the Twenty- 
third Psalm very slowly, for they mean very much; but the 
unthinking child rattles off his " Now I lay me down to sleep. ' ' 
If one word in a sentence touches the memory, and visions of 
hitherto forgotten things arise, we speak that word slowly. 
We pause while we say " From Maine to California," for in 
that pause the mind must cross America. 

The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 

We read these lines slowly, because the sentiment in the mind 
of the reader displays itself in the rate of utterance. We think 
of the peaceful, restful part of the day; we see the church; and 
we hear the sound of the bell. We think of the setting sun and 
the deepening shadows; we watch the cattle as they leisurely 
follow the winding paths. 

Notice how the time in the following becomes slower when 
the larger thought is reached: 

Then your apples all is gether 'd, and the ones a feller keeps 

Is poured around the cellar floor in red and yeller heaps ; 

And your cider-makin's over, and your wimmern folks is through 

With their mince and apple butter, and their sous and saussage too. 

I don't know how to tell it — but if such a thing could be 

As the angels wantin' boardin', and they 'd call 'round on me, 

I 'd want to 'commodate 'em, all the whole indurin' flock, — 

When the frost is on the punkin, and the fodder 's in the shock I 



TIME 5 

Rapid utterance also is determined by the thought and 
emotion. We speak the words, " I galloped, Dirck galloped, 
we galloped all three, " rapidly, but not because we wish to imi- 
tate the sound of horses' feet. Nor do we do it to make the 
reader imagine the galloping. That may be the result, but it is 
not the cause. The real cause is, that we appreciate the idea 
of the words, that we feel the emotion. The rapid utterance is 
the result of a kind of automatic suggestion. The connection is 
immediate. The brain does not say, " Galloping means quick 
movement ; therefore, lips, move quickly. ' ' The two things are 
coincident. As the thought of galloping enters the conscious- 
ness and for a time fills it, the lips give out the sound that holds 
sway. 

Notice the somewhat rapid utterance of the following. No 
emotion is involved, the thoughts are not large, the circum- 
stance is commonplace. 

Wal, the very next mornin' Josiah got up with a new idee in his head. 
And he broached it to me at the breakfast table. They have been havin' 
sights of pleasure exertions here to Jonesville lately. Every week a'most 
they would go off on an exertion after pleasure, and Josiah was all up on 
end to go too. 

That man is as well-principled man as I ever see, but if he had his 
head he would be worse than any young man I ever see to foller up 
picnics and 4th of July's and camp-meetin's and all pleasure exertions. 
But I don't encourage him in it. I have said to him time and time 
again: " There is a time for everything, Josiah Allen, and after any 
body has lost their teeth and every mite of hair on the top of their head, 
it is time for 'em to stop goin' to pleasure exertions." 

But good land; I might just as well talk to the wind! If that man 
should get to be as old as Mr. Methusler and be goin' on a thousand years 
old, he would prick up his ears if he should hear of a exertion. All sum- 
mer long that man has beset me to go to 'em, for he would n't go without 
me. Old Bunker Hill himself hain't any sounder in principle 'an Josiah 
Allen, and I have had to work head-work to make excuses and quell him 
down. But last week they was goin' to have one out on the lake, on a 
bland, and that man sot his foot down that he would go. 

Marietta Holley 



ESSENTIALS OF READING 



In the following the strength of the emotion results in the 
rapidity of the time. 

Ranald and Mrs. Murray are being chased by wolves. Ranald 
glanced over his shoulder. Down the road, running with silent, awful 
swiftness, he saw the long, low body of the leading wolf flashing through 
the bars of moonlight across the road, and the pack following hard. 

"Let her go, Mrs. Murray," cried Ranald. "Whip her and never 
stop." But there was no need; the pony was wild with fear and was doing 
her best running. 

Ranald was meantime holding in the colt, and the pony drew away 
rapidly. But as rapidly the wolves were closing in behind him. They 
were not more than a hundred yards away, and gaining every second. 
Ranald, remembering the suspicious nature of the brutes, loosened his 
coat and dropped it in the road; with a chorus of yelps they paused, 
then threw themselves upon it, and in another minute took up the 
chase. 

But now the clearing was in sight. The pony was far ahead, and 
Ranald shook out his colt with a yell. He was none too soon, for the 
pursuing pack, now uttering short, shrill yelps, were now at the colt's 
heels. Lizette, fleet as the wind, could not shake them off. Closer and 
ever closer they came, snapping and snarling. Ranald could see them 
over his shoulder. A hundred yards more, and he would reach his own 
back lane. The leader of the pack seemed to feel that his chances 
were slipping swiftly away. With a spurt he gained upon Lizette, 
reached the saddle-girths, gathered himself in two short jumps, and 
sprang for the colt's throat. Instinctively Ranald stood up in his 
stirrups, and kicking his foot free, caught the wolf under the jaw. 
The brute fell with a howl under the colt's feet, and the next moment 
they were in the lane and safe. Ralph Connor. 

Dickens' " Death of Little Nell "is one of those pieces of lit- 
erature in which the quality of the emotion, and the largeness of 
the thought, unite to produce slow time. 

She was dead. No sleep so beautiful and calm, so free from trace of 
pain, so fair to look upon. She seemed a creature fresh from the hand of 
God, and waiting for the breath of life; not one who had lived and 
suffered death. 

Her couch was dressed here and there with winter berries and green 
leaves, gathered in a spot she had been used to favor. " When I die, put 



TIME 7 

near me something that has loved the light and had the sky above it 
always." Those were her words. 

She was dead. Dear, gentle, patient, noble Nell was dead. Her little 
bird — a poor, slight thing ,the pressure of a finger would have crushed — 
was stirring nimbly in its cage; and the strong heart of its child-mistress 
was mute and motionless forever. 

Where were the traces of her early cares ? All gone. Sorrow was dead 
within her; but peace and perfect happiness were born, — imaged in her 
tranquil beauty and profound repose. 

And still her former self lay there, unaltered in this change. Yes. The 
old fireside had smiled upon that same sweet face; it had passed like a 
dream through haunts of misery and care; at the door of the poor school 
master on the summer evening, before the furnace-fire upon the cold, wet 
night, at the still bedside of the dying boy, there had been the same 
mild, lovely look. So shall we know the angels in their majesty, 
after death. 

An example of slow time on account of the greatness of the 
thought is found in John Adams' speech at the adoption of the 
Declaration of Independence. 

But whatever may be our fate, be assured, be assured, that this declara- 
tion will stand. It may cost treasure, and it may cost blood; but it will 
stand, and it will richly compensate for both. Through the thick gloom 
of the present, I see the brightness of the future, as of the sun in heaven. 
We shall make this a glorious, an immortal day. When we are in our 
graves, our children will honor it. They will celebrate it with thanksgiving, 
with festivity, with bonfires, and illuminations. On its annual return they 
will shed tears, copious, gushing tears, not of subjection and slavery, not 
of agony and distress, but of exultation, of gratitude, and of joy. 

Sir, before God, I believe the hour is come. My judgment approves 
this measure, and my whole heart is in it. All that I have, and all that I 
am, and all that I hope to be, in this life, I am now ready here to stake 
upon it; and I leave off as I began, that live or die, survive or perish, I am 
for the declaration. It is my living sentiment, and by the blessing of God 
it shall be my dying sentiment; independence now, and INDEPEND- 
ENCE FOREVER. 

Another example of the same time for the same cause. 
Ptrtia. The quality of mercy is not strained; 
It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven 



8 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

Upon the place beneath : it is twice bless' d; 
It blesseth him that gives, and him that takes: 
'Tis mightiest in the mightiest : it becomes 
The throned monarch better than his crown; 
His scepter shows the force of temporal power, 
The attribute to awe and majesty, 
Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings; 
But mercy is above this sceptred sway; 
It is enthroned in the hearts of kings, 
It is an attribute to God himself; 
And earthly power doth then show likest God's 
When mercy seasons justice. 

The teacher should give few mechanical directions. 

An injunction, " Read more slowly, my boy, " is a truly mechan- 
ical device. It is the same operation as that of the engineer 
when he partially closes the throttle. It changes in no way 
the child's conception of the thought. The slower reading 
that results is not one whit better than the rapid reading 
of the first attempt, because it represents no better con- 
ception of the thought. 

The teacher should work through the thought and emo- 
tion. The teacher of reading knows the lesson that he assigns. 
He knows how much is meant by the author. If his pupils read 
too rapidly, he knows that they are not appreciating the magni- 
tude of the ideas. So he tries to bring to their realization so much 
of the author's thought as the children are able to grasp. He does 
this by question, or by explanation, or by paraphrase. He uses 
the children's experience and their imagination. He works from 
the thought and the emotion. He regards time as a test, not 
as an end. 

Reading that is too slow. This trouble may arise from one 
of three causes. The child may be slow by nature. The teacher 
should then not require what is beyond the pupil's power to do. 
Reading that is right, judged by his temperament, should be 



TIME 9 

accepted. Sometimes children read too slowly because of 
unfamiliarity with the words. The treatment then is deter- 
mined by the cause of the unfamiliarity. 

It may be the result of having a reader that is too difficult for 
the pupils. There may be too many new words per page. In 
such a case the reader should be changed. The lack of famil- 
iarity with the words may result from the nationality of the 
pupil. If it is impossible, or not best, to transfer him to a more 
elementary class, then the teacher must possess her soul 
with patience until the pupil learns our language. In a 
few years he will be up with his fellows. The child learns 
languages so easily that a foreign born child will finish 
with the American children and will learn our language in 
addition. 

In the third place, this unfamiliarity with the words may 
be the result of careless assignment of the lesson. (See As- 
signment of the Lesson.) If the reading is too slow on ac- 
count of word trouble, let the teacher, first of all, see to it 
that she has performed her work properly. 

As a summary of what has been said in this chapter, and as 
an illustration of the handling of a selection to bring out the 
largeness of the thought, let us read Julia Ward Howe's won- 
derful poem, "The Battle Hymn of the Republic." This poem is 
usually sung in our schools to the tune of "John Brown's Body 
Lies Mouldering in the Grave." We make the rhythm the 
conspicuous thing. We sing it, " Humpty, dumpty, dumpty, 
dumpty; humpty, dumpty, dumpty, dum; " etc. Let us see 
what it really means. 

Julia Ward Howe felt her heart throb with sympathy for a 
million slaves. She was oppressed with the thought of the great 
sin that her nation had committed. She saw the gathering of 
myriads of fighting men to overwhelm the defenders of slavery. 
Thinking of all this she wrote : — 



io ESSENTIALS OF READING 

Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord; 
He is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored; 
He hath loosed the fateful lightning of His terrible swift sword: 
His truth is marching on. 

In the darkness of the night she has gone up to the house roof 
in her home in the nation's capital. She has seen the camp- 
fires of the soldiers in those ninety forts that encircled and 
defended Washington. She thinks of the terrible power soon 
to be loosed from those thousands of muskets, those hundreds 
of cannon. As she thinks of this, it comes to her that God, 
himself, is moving in the midst of this army, that He has 
pronounced His will, and that His omnipotent power is on 
the side of the North. 

I have seen Him in the watch-fires of a hundred circling camps; 
They have builded Him an altar in the evening dews and damps; 
I can read His righteous sentence by the dim and flaring lamps: 
His day is marching on. 

In our imagination we also see the columns of blue clad ; , stal- 
wart men marching down Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, 
filling it from curb to curb, stretching away in the distance as far 
as the eye can reach. We also feel the irresistible power of 
the cause. Certainly God is on our side, and He is marching 
with His children. 

I have read a fiery gospel writ in burnished rows of steel: 
" As ye deal with My contemners, so with you My grace shall deal; 
Let the Hero, born of woman, crush the serpent with His heel, 
Since God is marching on. ' ' 

As we think of this host of soldiers, of this just cause, of the 
aroused wrath of God, there comes a determination that this re- 
bellion shall be quelled, that this blot shall be removed, that 
men shall be tested by fire and by blood. All this shall be 
done, it cannot be prevented, for God has willed it. 



TIME n 

He has sounded forth the trumpet that shall never call retreat; 
He is sifting out the hearts of men before His judgment seat; 
O, be swift, my soul, to answer Him! be jubilant, my feet! 
Our God is marching on. 

In an upper room in a lodging-house in London, a group of 
war correspondents were celebrating the approach of war in 
the Soudan. Led by the veteran, the Nilghai, they sing the 
American song, "The Battle Hymn of the Republic." They 
sing the first stanza, and the second, and the third, and the 
fourth. Then they pause. Cassavetti, the Frenchman, proud 
of his knowledge, starts the last verse, — but grizzled old Tor- 
penhow, the veteran of a dozen campaigns, holds up his hand 
and says, " Hold on. We've nothing to do with that. That 
belongs to another man." What is this verse, so high in 
sentiment, so lofty in tone, that these men would not or could 
not sing it? This is it. 

In the beauty of the lilies, Christ was born across the sea, 
With a glory in His bosom that transfigures you and me; 
As He died to make men holy, let us die to make men free, 
While God is marching on. 

OUTLINE OF CHAPTER I 

TIME 

Mechanics of reading. 

Relative importance of the mechanics and the thought. 
The two schools of teaching reading. 

Necessity of teachers understanding the mechanics of reading. 
Definition of time. 

What determines time. 
Function of time. 
What causes rapid time. 

Common place thought. 

Excitement. 
What causes slow time. 

Emotion. 

Largeness of thought. 



i2 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

Mechanical directions. 
Through what to work. 
Cause of too rapid reading. 
Causes of too slow reading. 

Nature of reader. 

Difficult text. 

Poor assignment of lesson. 
Example of method. 

FOR REVIEW AND SUGGESTION 
i. Why is the knowledge of the mechanics of reading important for 
the teacher? 

2. What are the various schools of teaching reading? How do they 
differ? 

3. What important truths are taught in each school? 

4. How is a teacher's work similar to a physician's? 

5. What determines time in reading? 

6. Why do we read descriptions of races rapidly ? 
7 What causes too rapid reading ? 

8. How can these causes be removed ? 

9 . What causes too slow reading ? 

10. How can these causes be removed ? 

11. Would you read Lincoln's Gettysburg Address slowly or rapidly? 
Why? 

12. What would you do if a pupil in a reading class should read 
"America" very rapidly? 

13. At what rate should "Mrs. Caudle's Curtain Lectures" be read? 
Kipling's "Recessional" ? 

14. Name some selections to be read in rapid time. Medium time. 
Slow time. 

15. Should a child ever be told to read slower ? When? 

16. How far should the temperament of children be taken into account 
in criticising the rate of their reading ? 

17. Will pupils of foreign ancestry require any different treatment 
from pupils of American ancestry ? 

18. Under what circumstances should a teacher read to pupils? 



CHAPTER n 
GROUPING 

A thing that affects Time, though important enough to be 
treated separately, is the subject of grouping. Good readers 
instinctively divide the words of a sentence into groups 
of varying lengths. The purpose of this grouping is 
that the hearer may receive the thought in units larger than 
words, and thereby understand it the more easily. When 
words expressing an idea are grouped together, the hearer re- 
ceives the idea as a unit. If the words are not given as a group, 
he receives a part of the idea, and must change his idea as each 
new element is introduced. This grouping is not only essen- 
tial to intelligent reading, but it is also natural. The mind 
finds it hard to hold long sentences in their entirety. A child 
will either break up these sentences into groups of comprehen- 
sible length, or, giving up the task, read the whole sentence as a 
string of words. He may even attach some words of the next 
sentence to his string, and be sternly informed by a mechanical 
teacher that he forgot to drop his voice at the period. It is the 
business of the teacher to promote the tendency to group words 
in reading. 

What words belong in a group is a matter determined 
by the thought alone. The mechanical teacher has a difficult 
task in teaching grouping, for there are no certain mechanical 
aids in discovering the groups. Punctuation is of some assist- 
ance, not because marks of punctuation mean pauses, but be- 
cause they indicate thought-units, and therefore, words grouped 
together in reading. Notice this sentence: — " Earth, that nour- 
ished thee, shall claim thy growth. ' ' Here the commas set off 

*3 



i 4 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

a supplementary clause. This relative clause is also a group of 
words read together. On the other hand, in the sentence — 
" Every Tom, Dick, and Harry was invited," there are com- 
mas, but the words are grouped together. Certainly no good 
reader would pause after the first word in the line, — " But, look 
you, Cassius — ." Punctuation, then, does not determine 
grouping, but does indicate structure of the sentence. Struc- 
ture depends on thought, and thought determines grouping. 

In the following sentences there are very clearly defined 
groups, while there are but few punctuation marks. The 
groups are indicated by dashes. " At the present day — the 
value of the cat — as a useful and pleasant inmate of the home 
— is generally recognized." "The Star of Napoleon — was 
just reaching its zenith, — as that of Washington — was be- 
ginning to wane." 

Children should be taught to feel the thought-groups and 
to indicate them while reading. The voice should not 
drop as at the end of the sentence. The sentence unit should 
still be in the child's mind. He should glance through the sen- 
tence before he begins to read. He should know that he will 
not be through before he gives the whole thought. He should 
read the sentence as a unit, dividing the connected ideas into 
subordinate groups of varying lengths. 

The primary pupil will find his first sentences to be single 
groups; as, " I have a leaf. " But even in the latter part of the 
first reader, grouping begins; as, "Three little squirrels — live 
in a tree." Grammar grade pupils find work like this: 
" Fourscore and seven years ago — our fathers brought forth 
upon this continent — a new nation, — conceived in liberty, — and 
dedicated to the proposition — that all men are created equal." 

Notice the great importance of proper grouping in the read- 
ing of Newman's "Lead, Kindly Light." Try reading it 
by lines and then by groups. 



GROUPING 1 5 



Lead,/kindly Light,/amid the encircling gloom,/ 

Lead thou/me on;/ 
The night is dark,/and I am far from home;/ 

Lead thou/me on: 
Keep Thou/my feet;/I do not ask to see 
The distant scene; — /one step enough for me./ 

I was not ever thus, /nor prayed that Thou/ 

Shouldst lead/me on;/ 
I loved to choose and see my path; /but now/ 

Lead thou/me on./ 
I loved the garish day,/and, spite of fears,/ 
Pride ruled my will :/remember not past years./ 

So long Thy power hath blest me,/sure it still/ 

Will lead/me on/ 
O'er moor and fen,/o'er crag and torrent, /till 

The night/is gone;/ 
And with the morn/those angel faces smile,/ 
Which I have loved long since,/and lost a while./ 

Few rules can be given the pupil about grouping. The 

only one that is universal is, that there is never more than one 
emphatic word in a group. If the reader decides to emphasize an 
additional word in a group upon which he is already decided, 
he will instinctively make two groups out of what he had before 
made but one. Work from the thought side. Help the pupils to 
pick out groups. Have them copy paragraphs and put marks 
where the groups are separated. Sometimes it is made more 
plain to the children by telling them that the words in a group 
are spoken as if they were parts of one word. 

Allow liberty of thought. The pupil should have reason- 
able scope for individuality in grouping, as in emphasis or 
time. After a time, he will acquire the ability and the habit, 
and oral reading will become for him much more of a plea- 



16 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

sure. The following verses are separated into groups. There 
are good grounds for differences of opinion in regard to 
some of the groups. In fact, it is uncommon for two teachers 
to agree on all the groups in a selection. Many will read the 
lines thus: 

iHis brow is wetnwith honest sweaty 

iHe earnsuwhate'er he can^ 
|And looks the whole world|(Jn the face,| 

t For he owes notpany man.| 

Most persons will read it as given in the text below, This 
selection is grouped by underscoring. The beginning and end 
of each group is indicated by an upward turn of the line, 

thus: 

I Thus on each sounding anvil| i shaped 
Each burning deed| |and thought !| 

This method of marking groups is preferable to the ordinary 
vertical line plan because it obscures the text less and because it 
directs attention to the group rather than to the pause that 
separates the groups. 

THE VILLAGE BLACKSMITH 
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 

t. |Under a spreading chestnut tree| 

|The village smithy stands;; 
(The smithy |a mighty man is he,| 

jWith large and sinewy hands?) 
[And the muscles of his brawny arms) 

|Are strong as iron bands.] 

2. |His hair is crispy jand blacky |and long,| 

|His face is like the tan^ 
|His brow is wet with honest sweat,| 

|He earns whate'er he can,| 
{And looks the whole world in the face,! 

|For he owes not any man.| 



GROUPING I7 



3. , |Week in^iweek out,nfrom morn till nighti 

|You can hear his bellows blow;i 
jYou can hear him swing his heavy sledge,| 

[With measured beatnand slow,| 
[Like a sexton) [ringing the village bell,| 

,When the evening sun^s low.) 

4. 1 And children coming home from school | 

[Look in at the open door;| 
They love to see the flaming forge,t 

|And hear the bellows roar,| 
(And catch the burning sparks[jthat fly 

Like chaff from a threshing-floor.| 

5. jHe goes on Sunday to the church,) 

I And sits among his boys;| 
|He hears the parson pray and preach;) 

|He hears his daughter's voice,) 
Ringing in the village choir,) 

[And it makes his heart rejoice.) 

6. |It sounds to him like her mother's voice 1 

Ringing in paradise ! | 
|He needs must think of her once more,) 

[How in the grave she lies;| 
I And with his hard, rough hand|jhe wipes 

A tear out of his eyes.) 

7. [Toiling,, — Rejoicing,, — ^rrowing,! 

[Onward through life he goes;) 
|Each morning! pees some task begun,) 

[Each eveningnsees it close ;| 
[Something attempted^ [something done,) 

|Has earned a night's repose.] 

8. |Thanks Ml thanks to thee,|[my worthy friend^ 

I For the lesson thou hast taught!] 
[Thus at the flaming forge of life[ 

lOur fortunes||must be wrought;) 
Thus on each sounding anvil|[shaped 

Each burning deeded thoughtlj 



18 ESSENTIALS OF READING 



OUTLINE OF CHAPTER II 

GROUPING 

Purpose of grouping. 
Naturalness of grouping. 
What determines grouping. 
Influence of punctuation. 
Duty of the teacher. 
Grouping in primary grades. 
Grouping in advanced grades. 
Liberty of thought. 
Methods of making groups. 
Example, "The Village Blacksmith." 

FOR REVIEW AND SUGGESTION 
i. How does grouping affect time ? 

2 . Upon what principle of thought-getting is grouping based ? 

3. Do people group words in conversation ? 

4. What part does punctuation play in grouping ? 

5. Can children group words correctly? 

6. How much individual liberty should be allowed in grouping? 

7. What exercises can be given children to train them in grouping? 

8. How would you group the sentence, "He laughed at the sugges- 
tion?" Change to the passive voice. 

9. Did the cow jump ( over the moon,, or , jump over, the moon ? 

10. Divide into groups, " The dish ran away with the spoon." 

11. Can you suggest a single verb that could be substituted for the 
verb-phrase in the preceding sentence ? 

12. What difference in meaning in "The boy who was hurt was 
taken home," and "The boy, who was hurt, was taken home?" 



CHAPTER III 
EMPHASIS 

The function of emphasis, the directing of attention to 
a word or group of words, is to show the motive of the 
speaker. This includes showing the relation of the words. 
The words, "Jones goes tomorrow," do not show the full 
thought of the speaker. There may be three very different 
meanings. "Jones goes tomorrow," shows that the speaker 
wishes to state the fact that it is Jones, not some one else who 
goes. The motive in " Jones goes tomorrow," is to tell that he 
"goes," not "comes," while "Jones goes tomorrow" indicates 
when he goes. The word that indicates the important thing, 
in other words, the main idea, is spoken higher in pitch than 
the other words of the sentence. It is often spoken with more 
energy also. Sometimes a motion of the hands or head or feet 
is also used to make very clear the motive in the mind of the 
speaker. This directing of attention is called emphasis. In 
reading it is accomplished mostly by the voice, and it is the 
movement of the voice and the cause of this movement that 
we must study. 

In every sentence or every phrase there is a main idea. 
Take, for example, "I am going to school, " spoken in answer 
to the question, " Where are you going ?" In this sentence the 
main idea is expressed by the word "school." Everything 
else in the sentence is of much less importance. The speaker 
will therefore raise the pitch of the voice in speaking the word 
" school." Indeed, a small boy asked the question, may ignore 
the accompanying words, and answer simply, "School ." In 
the sentence, "I would rather be a doctor than a lawyer, ' ' 
the main ideas are expressed by the words "doctor" and 
" lawyer." These words are therefore spoken with a change 
of inflection that results in placing the two ideas in contrast. 

19 



20 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

The first time an idea is mentioned, it is, generally, 
the main idea, and so is emphatic. 

For example: 

i. Mary has a doll. 3. She has a book, too. 

2. She loves her doll. 4. It is a new book. 

In the first sentence, there are three new ideas expressed by 
"Mary," "has," and "doll." No matter how often the 
words occur again in this connection, they will not have direct 
emphasis. In the second sentence, the main idea is the verb 
"loves ' ' and all the rest must be subordinated. In the third 
sentence, "book" gives the new idea. In the fourth, the 
purpose is to predicate newness of something mentioned 
before, so the important word is "new." 

The time to begin expressive reading is with the first 
sentence the child reads. It is easier to form correct habits 
than to change errors after they have become fixed. In reading 
a simple sentence like the first above, after the pupil knows 
the words the teacher can ask him to tell what the first sentence 
says. It is worth while to take time to have him tell the 
sentence clearly and distinctly, making good conversation 
the standard. Each important idea will have a slight empha- 
sis effected by melody, stress and time. The teacher should 
see that the article "a" is given as though an unaccented 
syllable of the word following. 

Before the pupil tries to read the second sentence, the teacher 
should ask, " What does the next sentence tell that is new? " 
Or she can say, "How does Mary feel toward her doll ?" The 
pupil should answer in the language of the book. If the teacher 
has succeeded in causing him to think clearly of the new relation 
he will answer with correct melody, the entire sentence being in 
tone-effect equivalent to a word of four syllables with the accent 
on the second syllable. 



EMPHASIS 21 



Before the pupil reads aloud the third sentence, the teacher 
should ask him what it tells that is new, or should say, " What 
else does she have ? ' ' The impulse of the pupil, if he has 
the meaning, will be to say, "A book." This is a good sign. 
But the teacher should then add, " Tell me all of it," and 
should question the pupil until he gives it as if it were two 
words, the first with four syllables with the accent on the last. 

To enable the pupil to see the new relation in the fourth sen- 
tence, the teacher can ask, "What kind of a book is it ? " Un- 
til the pupil is able to select the main idea readily, the teacher 
should continue questioning in one or both of the ways suggest- 
ed, and should return to the questioning at any time when the 
pupil shows a tendency merely to pronounce words. 

A sentence must be read in its relation to what precedes 
and what follows it. It is sometimes said that a sentence, 
like the first example above, can have four different meanings, 
and so can be read correctly in four different ways. That 
would be true if the sentence stood alone. It would then be 
valueless, as no one could tell what the writer meant. From the 
nature of the case, a sentence must have a sufficient setting to 
show its meaning, or it serves no purpose of language. In the 
example mentioned, the second sentence makes clear the mean- 
ing of the first. If the second read, " She had a flower," it 
would change the meaning of the first entirely. If it read, "It 
is not the doll she wants, ' ' the meaning of the first would be dif- 
ferent still. Change the second to " Lucy wants it," and it 
changes the first accordingly. Write it, " She wants a flower, ' ' 
and this conditions the meaning of the first. If the second is, 
" Lucy has a flower, ' ' there is still a different shade of meaning. 
Let the teacher, for her own study of sentence meaning, try the 
effect of changing the second sentence so as to give still different 
meanings; as "Lucy wants a flower," "Lucy has a doll, too," 
" Lucy wants the doll, ' ' etc. It would be well for the teacher to 



ESSENTIALS OF READING 



write the first sentence and follow it with as many different sen- 
tences as can be arranged to vary the meaning of the first. Both 
sentences should be written out each time. This is a most im- 
portant exercise, and will lead to clearness in handling larger 
units. 

Children should be taught to look for the main ideas. 
When a sentence is read without expression, it means that the 
reader does not have in his mind the meaning of the sentence. 
The obvious remedy is to get him to think the right thought. 
To ask him to imitate the teacher's rendering, or that of another 
pupil, does not meet the requirement. He must be led to see for 
himself the main idea. The teacher can do this by questions 
or substitutions. For instance, in the text given below, suppose 
a pupil reads, "Then the Farmer came to look at his wheat. ' ' 
The teacher says, " Who came?" and the pupil answers by 
reading the sentence correctly, "Then the Farmer came to look 
at his wheat." Or the teacher may say in a question- 
ing tone, "Then the Hunter came," and the answer will 
be, "Then the Farmer came to look at his wheat." 
By either the question or the substitution, the teacher brings 
the thought to the child's consciousness, and the thought 
produces the correct emphasis. It is a pedagogical blunder to 
have pupils read a sentence in several different ways, in accord- 
ance with the so-called "expression exercises" of some texts on 
reading. It creates the impression that meanings can be jug- 
gled about, and that it is really not an important matter just 
how a sentence is read. As a matter of fact, there is but one 
way to read a sentence, as a sentence has, or should have, but 
one meaning. 

Sometimes it is impossible to determine the meaning. This 
condition should be recognized as a fault of the writer, and 
should not be used as an excuse for inaccurate thinking, or for 
careless expression. Writers of primers and first readers err 



EMPHASIS 



23 



most in this respect. Many of them are so anxious to intro- 
duce words that they use them in any relation, so they are 
used frequently. There is as much reason for lesson unity in 
these earlier years as at any other time. The paragraphs 
should have proper coherence. Except in exercises especially 
designated as reviews, a sentence should never be used that 
does not have consistent paragraph relations. Teachers 
should feel perfectly free to omit exercises that violate this prin- 
ciple, as there is no such pressing need of acquiring a large 
vocabulary that it should be accomplished at the expense of a 
violation of the language sense. Then there is plenty of material 
available that is consistent in this regard. This should be 
drawn upon, in the interest of forming habits that will not 
need to be changed later. 

Whatever is already in consciousness is not emphatic. 
It matters not how the idea came to the attention. It may have 
been mentioned before, as in the illustrations given at the begin- 
ning of this chapter. It may be supplied by a picture, as in the 
story of "The House that Jack Built. " It may be implied by 
the nature of the context, as occurs in the story of the " Prodigal 
Son. ' ' "And the father said to his servants, 'Bring forth the best 
robe, and put it on him; and put a ring on his hand, and shoes 
on his feet.' ' ' The use of the ring is clearly implied by the con- 
text. Such a ring is worn on the hand, so the relation of the 
hand to the ring is implied in mentioning the ring. So shoes are 
wearing apparel for the feet, and the use is included in the 
idea expressed by the name. Neither "hand" nor "feet" is 
as emphatic as "ring" and "shoes." 

Inasmuch as a pronoun represents another word, it cannot 
be used unless the idea is already under consideration. Hence 
pronouns do not have absolute emphasis. When a pronoun is 
emphatic, it is emphasis of contrast, of question, of affirmation, 
of force, or of irony. 



24 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

The circumflex, or wave inflection is used most frequent- 
ly to show emphasis .of contrast. In speech, there is no mis- 
taking the intention of making a contrast. A warning is 
given by a peculiar circumflex, or wave of the voice. This cir- 
cumflex is used for other purposes, but the difference is shown 
by the quality. No one confuses it with sarcasm, irony, scorn, 
indignation,, or the hundred other shades of meaning indicated 
by the use of the wave. In reading, the presence of contrast 
must be learned from the context. The surety with which it is 
discerned depends upon the ability of the reader to hold in 
mind the meanings already in consciousness, and to direct the 
eye far in advance in search of the full meaning. Often there 
will result a shifting and rearrangement of related meanings. 
The less frequent this readjustment is necessary, the more satis- 
factory will be the result whether the reading be silent or oral. 

The difference between direct and circumflex emphasis can 
be represented graphically. Thus: "Harry is at the window" 
There is a change of pitch and of stress. The transition from 
the higher to the lower pitch is made between syllables, the voice 
being dropped abruptly from one to the other. If the contrast 
were intended, the contrasting ideas would be indicated by a 
wave; thus: "Harry is at the window. Mary is near the 
organ." The wave belongs mostly to the vowel sounds, 
and involves all but the most obscure sounds. 

Care must be taken not to attempt to emphasize too many 
words. Sometimes an ambitious and affected reader will 
give utterance to such an absurdity as this, " Towards 
noon the farmer and his son came into the field." In 
this sentence, the reader must decide whether " noon," or 
"farmer and his son, " or "field " expresses the central idea. 
Only one of these ideas can sway the mind at a time. Only 
one of them should be emphasized. No compromise can be 
allowed by placing some emphasis on each. The aim should 
be to emphasize but few words, but to emphasize those few 



EMPHASIS 25 



words hard. Let common sense rule, and let the teacher be 
considerate of the pupil's honest opinion. 

The following story is marked to show the main ideas. 
Many expressions that have a slight emphasis are not marked. 
Such emphasis takes care of itself. The important thing is to 
have the main ideas brought out very distinctly. As in group- 
ing words, there is great room for differences of opinion. 

In a field of wheat there was a Lark's nest, and in the nest there 
were four young Larks almost large enough to fly. One morning 
when the mother Lark was going out for something to eat she said to 
her little ones: — 

"The wheat is now ripe enough to be cut, and there is no telling 
how soon the reapers will come. So keep wide awake to-day, and when 
I come home tell me all that you see or hear." 

The little Larks promised that they would do so, and the mother 
flew away singing. 

She was hardly out of sight when the Farmer who owned the field 
came with his son to look at his wheat. "I tell you what, John," he 
said, "it is time that this wheat was cut. Go round to our neighbors 
this evening and ask them to come to-morrow and help us." 

When the old Lark came home the young ones told her what they 
had heard; and they were so badly frightened that they begged her 
to move them out of the field at once. 

"There is no hurry," she said. "If he waits for his neighbors 
to come he will have to wait a long time." 

The next day, while the mother Lark was away, the Farmer and his 
son came again. 

''John, did you ask the neighbors to come?" said the Farmer. 

"Yes, sir," said John, "and they all promised to be here early." 

"But they have not come," said the Farmer, "and the wheat is so 
ripe that it must be cut at once. Since our neighbors have failed us 
we must call in our kinsfolk. So mount your horse and ride round 
to all your uncles and cousins, and ask them to be sure and come 
to-morrow and help us." 

The young Larks were in great fear when they heard this, and in 
the evening they told their mother all about it. 

"Mother," they said, "we shall be killed if we stay here another 
day. Our wings are strong enough ; let us fly away right now." 

"Don't be in a hurry," said the mother. "If the Farmer waits for 
his kinsfolk the wheat will not be cut to-morrow; for the uncles 
and cousins have their own harvest work to do." 

She went out again the next day, but told the young ones to notice 
everything that happened while she was gone. 

Towards noon the Farmer and his son came into the field again. 

"See how late in the day it is," said the Farmer, "and not a man 
has come to help us." 



26 ESSENTIALS OF READING 



"And the grain is so ripe that it is all falling down and going to 
waste," said his son. 

"Yes," said the Farmer, "and since neither our friends nor our 
kinsfolk will help us, we must do the work ourselves. Let us go 
home and whet our scythes and get everything ready, so that we can 
begin before sunrise in the morning." 

The old Lark came home quite early that day, and the little 
Larks told her what they had heard. 

"Now, indeed, it is time for us to be off," she said. "Shake your 
wings and get ready to fly; for when a man makes up his mind to do 
a thing himself, it is pretty sure to be done." 

ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS — EMPHASIS 

There are two familiar stories that are opposite types and 
that are excellent illustrations of the principle that emphasis 
is always dependent upon what is known to the one for whose 
benefit the story is being told. These are "The House that 
Jack Built," and "Chicken Little." 

The first begins, "This is the house that Jack built." The 
word ^this" indicates that the idea of "house" is in conscious- 
ness, made so by a picture or other visible presentation. The 
speaker is pointing at the house or its picture, otherwise "this" 
could not be the opening word. Evidently the purpose of the 
sentence is, not to bring before the reader the idea of a house, 
but to tell something important about a house already known. 
To read the sentence, as is so often done, with the emphasis 
on " house," when it follows the demonstrative "this" which 
denotes presence, is to presume that the hearer cannot recognize 
a house when it is seen. Then the relative "that" indicates 
that the restrictive clause following is of more importance than 
the antecedent, as is true of all restrictive clauses. A con- 
ception of the word "house" includes the knowledge that it 
has been built. So the only important word in the clause 
is "Jack." "This" is a strong demonstrative and is emphatic 
by nature. All other words in the sentence are unimportant, 
and must be subordinated. This subordination can be effected 
most naturally by leaving them in a lower plane, in pitch, in 



EMPHASIS 27 



stress, and in the attitude of the reader toward them. Accord- 
ingly the sentence should be read : THIS is the house that J ACK 
built. 

In connection with the next sentence, there is, or should be, 
a picture of a sack marked "malt." The pupil will probably 
not know what the word means, but this sentence as given 
in the story assumes that he does. Where the story originated 
the word was well known. If the purpose were to tell that the 
substance is malt, it would read, "This is malt, which lay in 
the house that Jack built." The evident purpose of the 
sentence is to tell something about some malt that is already in 
mind. Again "this" is emphatic because it is a strong demon- 
strative. "Malt" is brought into consciousness by the picture 
with its label. "The house that Jack built," was brought out 
in the first sentence. Evidently the main idea is the relation 
of the "malt" to "the house that Jack built." It "lay in "or 
"was in" the place previously mentioned. Accordingly it should 
be read: 

THIS is the malt that LAY m the house that Jack built. 
If the pupil is caused to think especially of "this" and the 
relation as expressed by "lay in," he will naturally subordinate 
the rest of the sentence, reading the words in a smoothly 
connected monotone, lower in pitch and with less stress than 
the two important words. The pupils should dwell upon 
the first two sentences until they have acquired sufficient control 
of their powers of expression to give the sentences with proper 
subordination of the known to the new. The first difficulty will 
be to secure such subordination in thought as to cause the pupil 
to have the right mental attitude toward the different ideas in 
the sentence. He must feel that everything is unimportant 
but the ideas, "This," and "Jack," or "this" and "lay in." 
When this is accomplished, the mechanical expression of this 



28 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

relation becomes comparatively easy. It does no good to tell 
him to emphasize certain words, or to have him imitate some 
one else. He must be brought to understand that we do not 
care for the rest of the sentence because we already know 
about it. We want what is new. 

The next sentence is accompanied by a picture of a rat. 
The absurdity of looking at the picture and declaring it a rat 
must be evident. The purpose of the sentence is to tell that 
that particular rat ate the malt under discussion. It should 

be read: — Tms is the rat that ATE the malt that lay in the house 
that Jack built. The rest of the story should be read: 

Tms is the cat that CAUGHT the rat that ate the malt that 
lay in the house that Jack built. 

Tms is the dog that W0RRIED the cat that caught the rat 
that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. 

Tms is the cow with the crumpled horn that T0SSED 
the dog that worried the cat that caught the rat that ate the 
malt that lay in the house that Jack built. 

Tms is the maiden all forlorn that mLKED the cow 
with the crumpled horn that tossed the dog that worried the 
cat that caught the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house 
that Jack built. 

Tms is the man all tattered and torn that KLSS ^ D the 
maiden all forlorn that milked the cow with the crumpled 
horn that tossed the dog that worried the cat that caught the 
rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. 

Tms is the priest all shaven and shorn that MARRIED 
the man all tattered and torn that kissed the maiden all for- 
lorn that milked the cow with the crumpled horn that tossed 
the dog that worried the cat that caught the rat that ate the 
malt that lay in the house that Jack built. 



EMPHASIS 20 



THIS is the cock that crowed in the morn that WAKED 
the priest all shaven and shorn that married the man all tat- 
tered and torn that kissed the maiden all forlorn that milked 
the cow with the crumpled horn that tossed the dog that 
worried the cat that caught the rat that ate the malt that lay 
in the house that Jack built. 

T s is the farmer sowing his corn that p the cock 
that crowed in the morn that waked the priest all shaven and 
shorn that married the man all tattered and torn that kissed 
the maiden all forlorn that milked the cow with the crumpled 
horn that tossed the dog that worried the cat that caught the 
rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. 

This story could be written so as to change the meaning 
and the emphasis. The antecedent of each clause could be 
made emphatic, having each bring into consciousness the 
idea of which it is a sign. This would be necesssary in the 
absence of a picture or other visible presentation. It would 

read:— Once there was a H0USE which JACK built. There 

was some MALT ' which LAY IN the house that Jack built. 

Along came a T ' which ATE the malt that lay in the house 

that Jack built. There was a CAT > which CAUGHT the 
rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. 

Both versions of the story can be used with advantage, and 
they will be productive of nice discriminations by even young 
pupils. They can be used profitably with all ages. Stories 
of this type are popular with young children. This is probably 
due to the fact that new words are serious obstacles to the 
child, and the occurrence of the same word again and again 
makes it pleasing. It is like happening upon an old friend, 
whom he meets with pleasure. When he finds not only the 
same words, but the same combinations of words repeated 



3o ESSENTIALS OF READING 

so often, he is pleased with the consciousness that he can use the 
them, and use them easily. They fairly roll from his tongue. 
Not only are such stories popular, but they are among the 
most valuable exercises that can be given to a class, if read 
correctly. The longer they grow, the more it is impressed 
upon the reader that the true meaning must be shown, regard- 
less of the number of words included. The self control that 
is acquired by subordinating nicely the long, involved, almost 
meaningless repetitions, is of the utmost value. But if they 
are read with no appreciation of the relative importance of the 
ideas, they become more jingles, forming vicious habits in 
thought getting and thought expressing. 

The story of Chicken Little is under quite different condi- 
tions. There is frequent iteration of the same ideas, but in 
each instance the story is new to the listener, so it must be 
told in the same way. 

CHICKEN Litde (l) was in a GARDEN, where she had NO 

RIGHT to be, when a R0SE leaf fell on (2) her TAIL " AWAY she 
ran in great FRIGHT until she met HENNY PENNY ' 

"O, HENNY penny> „ she cried> „ the SKY ^ FALLING!" (3) 

" How do you KN0W ? " asked Henny Penny (i). 
" Oh! I SAW it with my EYES > and I HEARD it with my EARS > 
and a PART of it FEEL on my TAIL ' I 'm G0ING to TELL the 

KING." (4) 

"Let me go WITH ® you ," said Henny Penny. So they 
ran to DUCKY Lucky. 
" DUCKY Lucky !" cried Henny Penny, the SKY is calling." 
"How do you KN0W? " asked Ducky Lucky, 



EMPHASIS 31 



"CHICKEN L j ttle TOLD me „ 

"HOW do Y0U ( 6 ) know, CEQCKEN KITTLE?'' &) 

" oh! " answered Chicken Little, "I SAW it with my EYES > 
I ^ it with my EARS ' and a PART of it fell on my™ 1 " 
Pm^^to^the™ 6 '' (4) 

"Let me go WITH you", said Ducky Lucky. So they ran 

until they came to G00SEY Loosey. 

" GOOSEY Loosey," cried Ducky Lucky, "the SKY is FALL " 
ING. " So the story is continued. 

NOTES 

(1). Stress emphasis is closely related to accent. In the 
case of compound words or of phrases equivalent to compound 
words, the emphasis follows the most important part of the 
word or phrase. 

(2). A verb-phrase compound of the verb "fell" and the 
preposition "on.' ' It is equivalent to "struck. " 

(3). (4). Force emphasis, showing strong emotion. Almost 
every word is emphatic. 

(5). A verb-phrase composed of the verb "go" and the 
preposition "with". It is equivalent to the verb "accom- 
pany. " 

(6). Emphasis of contrast, indicated by increasing the 
stress and raising the pitch, accompanied by a circumflex of 
the voice. Notice that the ideas involved in the words "how" 
and "know" have lost their importance. The purpose is to 
refer a topic under discussion to another person present. The 
main idea is the contrasting of the sources of information. 

(7). Emphasis of direct address. The effect of the rising 
inflection on the last word raises it, into a position of 
emphasis. 



32 ESSENTIALS OF READING 



OUTLINE OF CHAPTER III 
EMPHASIS 
The function of emphasis. 
The main idea. 
A new idea. 
Related ideas. 

Training children to find main ideas. 

The circumflex inflection indicating contrast in main ideas. 
An example. 

FOR REVIEW AND SUGGESTION 
i. What is the function of emphasis? 

2. What is main idea? 

3. What makes an idea important ? 

4. How often, in the same selection, may the same idea be impor- 
tant? 

5. How early can the child be expected to give expressive reading ? 

6. Can a sentence be read correctly without a- knowledge of the 
context ? When ? 

7. What is the peculiar melody in emphasis of contrast ? 

8. What is the effect of trying to emphasize too many words? 



CHAPTER IV 
INFLECTION 
The melody of the voice has more to do than to point 
out main ideas. It must also show the motive of the 
speaker in other respects. It does this by many different 
movements of the voice, all called inflections. In the 
sentence, "You are going to vote for me, aren't you?" the 
words " aren't you " are emphasized no matter what the motive. 
The melody, however, may differ materially. If the one speak- 
ing is merely coaxing, the voice will rise, and then fall, a 
circumflex inflection, thus, "You are going to vote for me, 
aren't you ? " If the one speaking is threatening, the inflection 
will take an upward turn. In each case the melody reveals the 
motive in the mind of the speaker. A person" says, "Such 
pleasant weather, " and we know that he means what he says. 
On a stormy day, he may say, " Such pleasant weather," and 
we know that he means the very opposite of what his words 
without melody mean. A person may say at one time, " The 

work is not half done. ' ' At another he may express an idea 

— \ 
exactly opposite by saying " The work is not half done. ' ' 

In conversation, no mistakes are made in melody, either by 
adults or by children. Neither are mistakes made in interpret- 
ing melody. Children recognize the patronizing teacher by the 
inflection of her words, and they accordingly hate her. She 
wonders why her pupils do not love her, when her motive to flat- 
ter and deceive is revealed in every word she speaks. This is 

33 



34 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

also the reason why the directions from one teacher are quickly 
and completely obeyed, while those of another are almost 
ignored. The children recognize, by the melody of the words 
of the one, that she intends to be obeyed, and by the melody 
of the words of the other, that she is not really in earnest. 
The second teacher cannot imitate the manner of the first, 
without an actual change in methods of discipline. If, how- 
ever, she reforms, and really intends to follow words by acts, 
the children will recognize in her words, also, the earnestness 
of the motive. 

So also, a reader cannot give a required inflection with- 
out having in his mind the motive. Therefore the teacher 
must see to it that the pupil has the thought in his mind. 
Then, if there is no obstacle, such as embarrassment, the 
melody will be correct. There is no other way of getting 
correct melody. 

An illustration. At the beginning of Antony's speech, he 
says, "For Brutus is an honorable man. ' ' "Honorable ' ' is em- 
phatic, and the melody is commonplace. Later in the speech, 
Antony's motive changes, and to show the new motive, the 
word must be given an entirely different inflection. Graphically 
represented, the first would be something like this, " For 
Brutus is an honorable man. ' ' Later in the speech it becomes, 
" For Brutus is an honorable man." It is not necessary to 
analyze this inflection. In the grades, such analysis will not 
aid in securing good expression. One thing and one only will 
secure it, and that one thing is for the reader to have in his mind 
the irony in which Antony spoke the sentence. 

It would not be profitable to make an extended analysis of 
pitch and melody at this time. For convenience, however, we 
give the following summary of the principal uses of key and in- 
flection, as found in most works on the subject. It is not to be 



INFLECTION 35 



thought that this summary includes all the uses of melody. 
Indeed, no work can do so. Herein lies one of the reasons 
why such works are not more useful to a teacher. 
A high key, the average pitch of the melody, marks: 
a. — Strong desire to communicate thought. 

Example, — "Friends, Romans, Countrymen! lend me 
your ears. ' ' 
b. — High nervous strain. 

Example, — "Charge, Chester, charge! On, Stanley, on!" 
Alow key marks: 
a. — Controlled mental conditions. 

Example, — " The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. " 
b- — Little or no desire to communicate thought. 

Example, — " To be or not to be, that is the question. ' ' 
The falling inflection marks: 
a. — Completeness. 

Example, — " I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him. ' ' 
b. —Momentary completeness. 

Example, — "And turned away and spake to his own 
soul. " 
c. — Decreased nervous tension. 

Example, — "It is finished, all is over. " 
The rising inflection marks: 
a. — Increased nervous tension. 

Example, — "What! I a coward?" 
b. — Uncertainty. 

Example, — " I don't know about that?" 
c. — Question to be answered by yes, or no. 

Example,' — " Are you going home ? ' ' 
The circumflex inflection, one made by a rising, and then 
a falling inflection, or by a falling and then a rising inflection, 
marks some complex mental conditions, including contrast. 



36 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

In, " Brutus is an honorable man," the inflection is affected 
by the two idea s of what Brutus is called, and what Brutus 
really is. " A-a-a-ah! I have caught you n-o-o-o-w!" Here 
are the elements, " You thought you were safe, but I have 
caught you anyhow. ' ' 

"Julius Caesar, the Emperor of Rome," was his friend. Here 
we find Caesar so important that it is marked by a falling 
inflection, but the looking forward of the mind complicates the 
situation and adds an upward turn to the falling inflection, 
giving a circumflex inflection. This pointing forward of the 
voice, to indicate that the thought is not yet completed, is a 
subject of such importance that it must be studied more par- 
ticularly. 

The motive of the speaker in regard to the succession 
of ideas is shown by melody. Take for example the sentence 
from Elizabeth Stuart Phelps' "Mary Elizabeth,"— " She 
was poor, she was sick, she was dirty, she was cold, she was 
hungry, she was frightened. ' ' If the reader decides that this 
is a climax, that " frightened "is the most important thing of 
all, that it is in the mind of the story-teller from the begin- 
ning, then the reader must make the melody point on and 
on, until the climax is reached. Something like this will re- 
sult: " She was poor, she was sick, she was ragged, she was 
cold, she was hungry, she was frightened." If, however, the 
reader believes that this is not a climax, that it is only a cata- 
log of wretchedness, that each thing is in itself enough misery 
for one small girl, then the melody must indicate this motive 
by a slight falling inflection on each of the important words. 
This indicates momentary completeness. It means that the 
mind is almost filled by the idea, although it is still but a part 
of the full thought. 

This falling inflection is very different from the inflection at 



INFLECTION 37 



the end of the sentence. It is, at most, but a tipping down- 
ward of but one word. At the end of a sentence, the voice 
usually rises and then falls in two or even three successive steps. 
The sentence read with the second interpretation, would be 

something like the following: — " She was poor, she was sick, 

\ \ \ \ 

she was dirty, she was ragged, she was cold, she was hungry, 

she was frightened." 

Another sentence from the same selection, illustrating the 
same things, is this one: " Whether the door-keeper was away, 
or busy, or sick, or careless, or whether the head-waiter at the 
dining-room door was so tall that he couldn't see so short a 
beggar, or however it was, Mary Elizabeth did get in; by the 
door-keeper, past the head-waiter, under the shadow of the 
clerk, over the smooth, slippery marble floor, the child crept 
on. ' ' In the sentence, there are two very important ideas, 
"did get in," and " the child crept on." The voice will point 
onward with even or upward inflections until the first is 
reached, then a downward turn will mark the momentary 
completeness at the word " in," or, it will have an upward 
turn at the end of the downward inflection, and will indicate 
to no one that the thought is completed. In the last half of 
the sentence, phrase after phrase points on, until the sentence 
rounds out in the most important thing of all, " the child crept 
on." 

In the following poem the falling inflections are marked, the 
rising, momentary completeness, and even inflection: 

CROSSING THE BAR 



Sunset and evening star, — ■ 

And one clear call for me : \ 

And may there be no moaning of the bar, — 

When I put out to sea, \ 



38 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

But such a tide as moving seems asleep, — 

Too full for sound and foam, — 

When that which drew from out the boundless deep — 

Turns again home. \ 

Twilight and evening bell, — 

And after that the dark! \ 

And may there be no sadness of farewell, — 

When I embark; \ 

For though from out our bourne of time and place,— 
The flood may bear me far, / 

I hope to see my Pilot \ face to face\ 

When I have crost the bar. \ 

Tennyson. 

In succession of ideas, as in the case of single words 
and phrases, the teacher must work through the thought. 

Let it be said, once more, that the analysis of melody will not 
help the pupil to give good expression. If he knows the whole 
thought, and has the whole thought in his mind, he will give it. 
The teacher must see to it that these two requirements are met. 
For example, remember the two interpretations of the sentence, 
" She was poor, she was sick, she was dirty, she was ragged, she 
was cold, she was hungry, she was frightened. ' ' Whichever 
interpretation be selected, the teacher should not talk to the pu- 
pil about climaxes, and upward inflections, and momentary 
completeness, and so on. If the climax interpretation is select- 
ed, the teacher should see to it that the child thinks of "fright- 
ened, ' ' as being the worst thing of all, that he has this in his 
mind from the beginning, and that he knows that this word 
will be the end of the thought. If the other interpretation is 
selected, she should speak of the troubles separately, allowing 
each one to fill the mind of the child as he reads it. 

The child should be taught to read by sentences. When 
he becomes a good reader, his eye will travel far ahead of his 



INFLECTION 39 



tongue. To train this skill, a child should be given time to 
glance through a sentence before he begins to speak it. Such a 
sentence as the second given from " Mary Elizabeth" can be 
read well by no one, without such a preparation. In the lower 
grades where sentences are short, the " Look and Say" method 
should be used for weeks at a time. Have the child read the 
sentence silently, close the book, keeping a finger in the place, 
and say it. This is a splendid device for getting thoughtful 
reading and good expression. Yet this sometimes happens. 
The child glances at a sentence, getting the thought at a glance, 
looks up at the teacher, and says the sentence correctly and 
eagerly; and then the teacher snaps out, " Look at your 
book and read it." The teacher is wrong. The pupil is 
right. He has gotten the thought and given the thought. 
This is reading. 

OUTLINE OF CHAPTER IV 

INFLECTION 

Melody and the motive of the speaker. 

Necessity of having the motive in the mind. 

Function of different melodies. 
Key. 

High key. 

Low key. 
Inflection. 

Falling inflection. Circumflex inflection. 

Rising inflection. Succession of ideas. 

Illustration. 

Methods of work. 

FOR REVIEW AND SUGGESTION 

1. What office does melody perform besides indicating main ideas? 

2. How can you say, "She is a sweet lady," and mean the opposite ? 

3. Can a reader give a thought that is not in his own mind ? 

4. What determines key? 

5. What may a falling inflection indicate ? Arising? A circumflex 

6. How can a pupil be trained to read periodic sentences ? 

7. How can pupils be trained to read by sentences? 

8. Should children ever be allowed to cut up sentences in reading 
them ? When ? 

9. Should children be required to look at the text as they read ? 



CHAPTER V 
FORCE 

Before proceeding with the subject of force and also 
with that of quality, it is necessary to make clear the 
distinction between reading, declaiming, and acting. Read- 
ing has been confused many times with declaiming and acting, 
much to the detriment of reading. The teaching of reading is 
injured, rather than helped, by the methods of the elocutionist. 
The function of acting is to create ideas in the minds of those 
who see and hear. The actor does this by imitating, as far as 
possible, the actions of a person in the imagined circumstances. 
He is assisted by costumes, cosmetics, elaborate scenery, and 
ingenious stage devices for imitating the real conditions. 
There are, however, certain limitations. The action of years 
must be portrayed in an evening, a dozen men must serve for an 
army. The muttered asides of the villain must be pronounced 
in a tone audible to hundreds of people. 

The function of declaiming is also to create certain ideas in 
the minds of those who see and hear. It differs from acting, 
principally, in the increased number of disadvantages. No 
assistance can be gotten from scenery and stage contrivances, 
and but little from costume and cosmetics. The declaimer 
must get along without even a dozen men in his army. 
Still, imitation, though helped largely by suggestion, is the 
purpose of the declaimer. The hapless heroine wrings her 
hands and sinks swooning to the floor. The valiant warrior 
draws and flourishes his imaginary sword. The lash of the 
noble Ben Hur writhes and hisses, and hisses and writhes again 
and again over the backs of his four. 

40 



FORCE 41 

The function of reading is very different from that of 
acting or declaiming. It is twofold, and the most important 
of the two purposes is not in acting or declaiming at all. 
More than nine-tenths of reading is silent reading, and its 
purpose is wholly the getting of thought. Of oral reading, the 
purpose is to convey thought, and to create ideas by means of 
suggestion, not at all by means of imitation. The sooner the 
teacher of reading gets the idea of imitating out of her mind, 
the better it is for her pupils. The idea of a person reading 
should not be the picture of a person speaking from a platform, 
but rather that of a gentleman in his library reading to his 
friends, or of a lady by the bedside of a sick friend, or of a 
school-boy standing by his seat reading to his fellows. With 
this idea of reading in our minds, let us turn to the subject of 
force. 

Force manifests the degree of mental energy in the 
mind of the speaker. It results in an increased muscular 
tension of the organs of speech. When force is in the nature of 
an explosive utterance, followed by a diminishing of effort, it is 
said to have radical stress. The stress is on the first 
of the syllable or word. It arises from the personal energy 
or the personal emotion of the speaker. The teacher says, 
" Children, be quiet!" The expression shows her determin- 
ation to have silence. The force arises from her own 
energy. 

Another and less common kind of stress is final stress. 
This is found where the force arises from the object mentioned, 
not from the speaker, as for example, "What! you! is it you!" 

It is used to meet opposition or to cause others to share 
one's feelings. A third kind of stress is median stress. Here 
the energy is greatest at the middle of the expression; as 
"This was the noblest Roman of them all." 

This classification may be of service to the teacher, 



42 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

but not to the pupil. All work with the pupil must be 
through the thought and emotion, depending upon sugges- 
tion, not imitation, for the result. Take for example the 
lines from "The Charge of the Light Brigade": 

Half a league, half a league, 
Half a league onward, 
All in the valley of death 

Rode the six hundred. 
"Forward, the Light Brigade! 
Charge for the guns!" he said; 
Into the valley of death 

Rode the six hundred. 

We should not attempt to have the pupil imitate the sound 
of the officer's voice, as he gave the command. However, 
the question to the pupils, "How do you think he spoke the 
words?" is not out of place: for it will bring to mind the 
fact that this man was the commander, that what he said 
was done with energy. If the pupil has in his voice, as he 
speaks the words, a tone of energy and of command, this 
tone, this suggestion, is what we want, not loudness. 

The problem of the teacher is to get the reader to imag- 
ine the situation of the speaker in a selection. When this is 
accomplished, the words of the reader will come with such force 
as to suggest the emotions of the original speaker. Let us be 
satisfied with this, and not attempt to secure imitation. Stress 
denotes the state of the mind. The only way to secure it in 
the right place is to secure the right state of mind. 

It will be helpful to observe the manner in which children 
narrate exciting incidents that they have witnessed. Under 
the influence of their emotions, they use an energized manner 
of expression that clearly denotes their feelings, but they 
seldom resort to imitation. As good reading approximates 



FORCE 43 

conversation under similar conditions, this study will aid in 
establishing standards for forceful reading. 

The following extracts show the kind of selections in the 
reading of which we may most easily get forceful expression 
from pupils. 

"One day we left our dolls under a big pine, while we ran off to wade 
for a few minutes. When we came back, not one was to be seen. 

" We hunted and hunted, and at last I happened to look up. What do 
you think I saw? Those eleven dolls were hanging by their necks to the 
branches ! 

"Donald stood near laughing. 'Santa Claus has given you a new 
Christmas tree,' he jeered, 'and more girl-dolls.' 

"Then he began to throw stones at them. We screamed and begged 
him to stop, but he kept on. 

"At last he hit Amy Marston's 'Flora,' and we heard the face smash in. 
Now Amy was a little girl, but we all loved her, and Donald had been her 
slave the summer before. 

"Amy turned perfectly white and screamed: 'You've killed her! You've 
killed my precious dolly ! ' then she fell right on the ground. 

"We were so frightened! Some one ran and picked Amy up, and 
some one else ran for her mother." 

The Heath Readers, Book Three. 

"You may kill me, but I'll make you pay for it!" And down went 
Franti, kicking and cuffing, and Stardi under him butting and lunging 
out with his heels. A woman shrieked from a window, "Good for the 
little one!" Others said, "It is a boy defending his sister; courage! 
give it to him well!" And they screamed at Franti, "You overbearing 
brute! you coward!" But Franti had grown ferocious; he held out his 
leg; Stardi tripped and fell, and Franti on top of him. 

"Surrender!" — "No!" — "Surrender!" — "No!" and in a flash 
Stardi recovered his feet, clasped Franti by the body, and, with one 
furious effort, hurled him on the pavement, and fell upon him with one 
knee upon his breast. 

"Ah, the infamous fellow! he has a knife!" shouted a man, rushing 

up to disarm Franti. 

From an Italian Schoolboy's Diary. 



44 ESSENTIALS OF READING 



THE FLAG GOES BY 

Hats off! 
Along the street there comes 
A blare of bugles, a ruffle of drums, 
A flash of color beneath the sky; 

Hats off! 
The flag is passing by! 

Blue and crimson and white it shines, 
Over the steel-tipped, ordered lines. 

Hats off! 
The Colors before us fly; 
But more than the Flag is passing by- 
Sea-fights and land-fights, grim and great, 
Fought to make and to save the State; 
Weary marches, and sinking ships; 
Cheers of victory on dying lips; 

Days of plenty and years of peace; 
March of a strong land's swift increase; 
Equal justice, right, and law, 
Stately honor and reverend awe; 

Sign of a Nation, great and strong 

To ward her people from foreign wrong; 

Pride and glory and honor, all 

Live in the Colors to stand or fall. 

Hats off! 
Along the street there comes 
A blare of bugles, a ruffle of drums, 
And loyal hearts are beating high; 

Hats off! 
The flag is passing by! 

Henry Holcomb Bennett 



FORCE 45 



OUTLINE OF CHAPTER V 

FORCE 

The difference between reading, declaiming, and acting. 
Acting, — imitation. 

Declaiming, — imitation and suggestion. 
Reading. 

Silent, gleaming of thought, 

Oral, transfer of thought, suggestion. 
The function of force. 
Stress. 
Kinds of stress. 

Radical stress. 

Final stress 

Median stress. 
Method of work. 
The teacher's problem. 
Exercises. 

FOR REVIEW AND SUGGESTION 

1. - What is the difference between acting, declaiming, and reading? 

2. Under what circumstances is it profitable to have the pupils hear 
elocutionists and actors? 

3. What idea of reading should a teacher have in mind? 

4. What does force indicate? 

5. Of what psychological condition is force the result? 

6. What is stress? Distinguish the kinds of stress. 

7. How should a pupil read, "I heard the thunder roll"? Why 
should he read it so? 

8. How can the teacher secure false or affected force ? 

9. How can the teacher secure genuine, heartfelt force ? 

10. Name some selections suitable for reading to illustrate force. 



CHAPTER VI 
QUALITY 

The quality of the voice of the reader indicates the emo- 
tion. A reader controls his utterance in regard to time, and 
thereby indicates the importance or largeness of the thought. 
He changes the pitch of his words, and thus exhibits motives. 
He uses different degrees of muscular energy, and thereby dis- 
plays his earnestness. By changing the position of the organs 
of speech, he can change the actual quality of the sound of his 
voice. By movements of the tongue, the larynx, and the palate, 
he can affect the size and shape of the cavities through which 
the sound moves. He can do this to some extent voluntarily. 
The greatest changes are, however, caused by the influence 
of emotion. Thus we have come to recognize the emotional 
state of the speaker by the quality of voice resulting from 
these muscular changes. So the reader who wishes to express 
emotions must use tones of proper quality. If he wishes to 
express sorrow, his voice must have the quality that we recog- 
nize as the effect of sorrow. If he wishes to express hate, he 
must produce that quality given by the vocal organs when 
under the influence of hate. Enthusiasm, discouragement, 
benevolence, awe, anger, jealousy, all must be shown by the 
quality of the voice. In short, the good reader must be a 
master of a musical instrument, the human voice, in compari- 
son with whose marvelous power, flexibility, and delicacy, 
man-created instruments, even the master-pieces of Stradi- 
varius, or the greatest organs of the greatest builders, must 
sink in hopeless inferiority. 

The number of different qualities of the voice is almost 

46 



QUALITY 47 

infinite. Some of the most common have been named and 
classified. That called by singers the bright, ringing quality is 
produced when the organs of speech are influenced by the emo- 
tions of joy, happiness, liveliness and the like. For example: 

Has there any old fellow got mixed with the boys? 
If there has take him out, without making a noise. 
Hang the almanac's cheat and the catalogue's spite;. 
Old Time is a liar! We're twenty to-night! 
We're twenty, we're twenty! Who says we are more ? 
He's tipsy, — young jackanapes! — show him the door! 
" Gray temples at twenty? " — ■ Yes, white if we please; 
Where the snowflakes fall thickest there's nothing can freeze. 

Holmes. 

Ring out, wild bells, to the wild sky, 
The flying cloud, the frosty light; 
The year is dying in the night: 

Ring out, wild bells, and let him die. 

Ring out the old, ring in the new, 
Ring, happy bells, across the snow; 
The year is going, let him go; 

Ring out the false, ring in the true. 

Tennyson. 



What is called the dark, sombre, covered tone is produced 
by the influence of gloom, sorrow, sadness, discouragement 
and the like. 

Adam. Dear master, I can go no farther: I die for food! Here 
lie I down, and measure out my grave. Farewell, kind master. 

"As You Like It." 



The organs of speech when not changed from the normal 
by any emotion give the quality called normal. Example: 



48 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

If to do were as easy as to know what were good to do, chapels had been 
churches, and poor men's cottages princes' palaces. It is a good divine 
that follows his own instructionsi I can easier teach twenty what were 
good to be done, than be one of the twenty to follow mine own teaching. 
The brain may devise laws for the blood, but a hot temper leaps o'er a cold 
decree: such a hare is madness the youth to skip o'er the. meshes of 
good counsel the cripple. 

Shakespeare. 

The voice when affected by deep, full, enlarged feeling takes 
a rich, full quality called the orotund. It is not necessarily 
accompanied by loudness. It comes naturally to the trained 
reader in reading passages of sublimity and grandeur. It is 
the evidence of exalted feeling. Examples: 

Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean — roll! 

Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain ; 

Man marks the earth with ruin — his control 

Stops with the shore; upon the watery plain 

The wrecks are all thy deeds, nor doth remain 

A shadow of man's ravage, save his own, 

When for a moment, like a drop of rain, 

He sinks into thy depths with bubbling groan, 

Without a grave, unknelled, uncoffined, and unknown. 

Byron. 

It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining be- 
fore us — that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that 
cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion; that we here 
highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that this na- 
tion, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom; and that govern- 
ment of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the 

earth. 

Abraham Lincoln. 

The quality of the voice when influenced by harsh and severe 
emotions that contract the muscles of the throat is called 
guttural. Hate, scorn, derision, have this quality. Examples: 



QUALITY 49 

Shylock {aside) . How like a fawning publican he looks! 
I hate him, for he is a Christian, 
But more for that in low simplicity 
He lends out money gratis and brings down 
The rate of usance here in Venice. 
If I can catch him once upon the hip. 
I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him. 

Shakespeare. 

The aspirated quality may be produced by any emotion 
that produces the feeling of oppression. It may be fear, exhaus- 
tion, excitement, awe, terror, hate, or some others. Examples: 
Macbeth. Whence is that knocking? 
How is't with me when every noise appalls me? 
What hands are here? Ha! they pluck out mine eyes. 
Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood 
Clean from my hand? No; this my hand will rather 
The multitudinous seas incarnadine, 
Making the green one red. 

Shakespeare. 

Macdutf. Approach the chamber, and destroy your sight 
With a new Gorgon. Do not bid me speak; 
See, and then speak yourself. 

{Exeunt Macbeth and Lennox.) 

Awake, awake! 
Ring the alarm bell, — Murther and treason! 
Banquo and Donalbain! — Malcolm! awake! 
Shake off this downy sleep, death's counterfeit, 
And look on death itself ! Up, up, and see 
The great doom's image! Malcolm! Banquo! 
As from your graves rise up, and walk like sprites, 
To countenance this horror. Ring the bell. 

Shakespeare. 

These qualities are the principal ones recognized in manuals. 
As a matter of fact there are not only many more qualities, 
but those given mingle, sometimes in complicated ways. The 
emotion in the following description of Jean Valjean in the 



50 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

Bishop's house is exceedingly complex. Fear, stealth, ferocity, 
remorse, all are mingled, and the quality of the voice is 
affected by all. 

When three o'clock struck it seemed to say, "To work." He took 
from his pocket a piece of iron, and walked toward the door of the ad- 
joining room. He found the door ajar. He pushed it boldly. A 
badly oiled hinge uttered a hoarse, prolonged cry. Jean Valjean started, 
shuddering and dismayed. A few minutes passed; nothing had stirred. 
He heard from the end of the room the calm and regular breathing of 
the sleeping Bishop. Suddenly he stooped, for he was close to the bed. 

Victor Hugo. 

All these qualities of the voice of the reader indicate 
the emotions. There is no mechanical way of gaining them 
or of putting emotion into reading. The old-time preacher 
who wrote in the margin of his sermons the notes, "Cry 
here" and "Solemn voice here," could hardly have touched 
his hearers. Professor Cumnock once told with great disgust 
how after he had read a selection that brought the tears to 
his eyes, a hearer, a theological student, came to him and 
said, " Mr. Cumnock, won't you please tell me how you 
make yourself cry ? " 

It is only the affected reader who tries to put into the reading, 
emotions that he does not feel. It is really a good thing that 
our healthy school boys refuse even to attempt to indicate 
emotion that they do not and cannot possibly feel. 

The teacher should not talk about Orotund and Aspirate 
Qualities, etc. She should select a text which appeals to 
emotions the children have felt. What boy can feel the 
words of the middle-aged man! 

Blessings on thee, little man, 
Barefoot boy with cheek of tan ! 
* * * * * ■ ♦ 

From my heart I give thee joy, — 
I was once a barefoot boy. 



QUALITY 51 

Many things the children have in their own experience, many 
things they can imagine. Select passages having these things; 
patriotism, love of nature, self-sacrifice, enthusiasm, curiosity, 
wonder, excitement, all of these can be used to affect the quality 
of the voice. Make them see the pictures of the scenes. 
Read them yourself. Emotion is catching. 

Before allowing pupils to begin the reading of an emotion- 
al selection, see that they catch the atmosphere of the selec- 
tion. By atmosphere we mean the general spirit of the selection. 
For example, before reading Tennyson's " Crossing the Bar," 
call to the pupil's attention the fact that when Tennyson 
wrote this poem he was eighty years old. He expected death 
at any time. He was looking straight into the future, and he 
was calmly resigned to meet whatever might come. 

Tennyson's " The Knights' Chorus " shows a different 
atmosphere. Call attention to the fact that Arthur is victorious, 
his kingdom is established, the king's glory is being celebrated 
in the song of the Knights: — 

Blow trumpet, for the world is white with May; 
Blow trumpet, the long night hath rolled away! 
Blow thro' the living world — "Let the King reign!" 

The following examples illustrate atmosphere: — 

Haste thee, Nymph, and bring with thee 
Jest, and youthful Jollity, 
Quips, and cranks, and wanton wiles, 
Nods, and becks, and wreathed smiles, 
Such as hang on Hebe's cheek, 
And love to live in dimple sleek; 
Sport, that wrinkled Care derides, 
And Laughter holding both his sides. 
Come, and trip it, as you go, 
On the light, fantastic toe; 
And in thy right hand lead with thee 
The mountain nymph, sweet Liberty; 



52 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

And if I give thee honour due, 
Mirth, admit me of thy crew, 
To live with her, and live with thee, 
In unreproved pleasures free. 



Milton. 



The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 

The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, 
The plowman homeward plods his weary way, 

And leaves the world to darkness, and to me. 
Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, 

And all the air a solemn stillness holds, 
Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight 

And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds. 
Save that from yonder ivy-mantled tower 

The moping owl does to the moon comqlain 
Of such as, wandering near her secret bower, 

Molest her ancient, solitary reign. 
Beneath these rugged elms, that yew tree's shade, 

Where heaves the turf in many a mould 'ring heap, 
Each in his narrow cell forever laid, 

The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. 

Gray. 

OUTLINE OF CHAPTER VI 

QUALITY 
Function of quality. 
Different qualities. 

Bright, ringing. 

Dark, sombre. 

Normal. 

Orotund. 

Guttural. 

Aspirate. 
Other qualities. 

Necessity of reader's feeling the emotion. 
Selecting text. 

Necessity of catching the atmosphere of the selection. 
What atmosphere is. 
Examples of atmosphere. 



QUALITY 53 

FOR REVIEW AND SUGGESTION 

i. What does the quality of the voice of a speaker or reader 
indicate ? 

2. To what extent is the quality of the voice under the control of 
the speaker or reader? 

3. How can a reader control the quality of the voice ? 

4. What are the qualities of the voice commonly named ? 

5. What does each indicate? 

6. Through what means should a teacher strive to secure reading 
that portrays the emotions of a selection ? 

7. What kind of text is best suited to children who are trying to 
read with emotion ? 

8. What do we mean by the atmosphere of a selection? 

9. How can the atmosphere of a selection be secured? 

10. What is the atmosphere of Poe's "Raven"? Wallace's 
"Chariot Race"? Milton's "Sonnet on His Blindness"? Lowell's 
" Courtin' " ? 



PART II 



INTERPRETATIVE READING 



HOW THE READER MUST INFER MUCH OF 
THE AUTHOR'S MEANING 



CHAPTER VII 
TYPES 

An author wishes to make vivid the way in which a man 
passed through a certain town. He does not make the man say 
that he walked watchfully, and quietly, and fearfully, and 
alertly. He makes him say, " I stole cat-footed through the 
town." Why not say "calf-footed?" Because the author 
must select as the type that animal of all animals which has 
in the greatest degree the qualities of alertness and stealth. 

An author often omits the name of the feeling or charac- 
teristic or idea he wishes to express. In its place he uses 
the name of some object that represents in a very high 
degree that feeling or characteristic or idea. For in- 
stance in "He was a lion in the fight," "lion" is used to 
represent bravery and fierceness. Such an object is said 
to be a type of the feeling or characteristic or idea it 
represents. 

Longfellow wishes to picture the beauty of the dew-laden 
trees of Arcadia. He says: — 

Bright with the sheen of the dew each glittering tree of the forest, 
Flashed like the plane-tree the Persian adorned with mantles and 
jewels. 

Sir Walter Scott wishes to emphasize the fickleness of love. 
He selects as a type the flowing and ebbing of the tide in Solway. 

I long wooed your daughter, my suit you denied ; 
Love swells like the Solway, but ebbs like its tide. 

Macaulay wishes to show the greatness of the Etruscan army. 
He selects as his standard of comparison the ocean, an object 

57 



58 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

that possesses in the highest degree the attributes of size and 
power. 

Meanwhile the Tuscan army, 

Right glorious to behold, 
Came flashing back the noonday light, 

Rank behind rank, like surges bright 
Of a broad sea of gold. 

The study of figures of speech is best taken up through 
types. Metaphor is that figure of speech in which one object 
is said to be another because of some type-quality discovered as 
common to both. One who has experienced the sense of pro- 
tection that comes from shelter behind a great rock in the des- 
ert at the time of a storm that threatened his safety, or who has 
escaped within the walls of a fortress when attacked by a band 
of enemies, has concrete examples of conditions that afford a 
high degree of protection. It is natural that such a one should 
lay hold of these familiar objects to represent his sense of 
protection when under the care of Jehovah, and should exclaim, 
" Thou art my rock and my fortress." He has in mind two 
distinct pictures, one of Jehovah and the other of a rock 
and a fortress. He declares Jehovah to be his rock and for- 
tress because his sense of protection under Jehovah's care is so 
great and so complete that in Jehovah he sees in the highest 
degree those qualities he had experienced in the inanimate 
forms. He takes Jehovah as his ideal of the quality he is trying 
to interpret. The protection afforded by the rock and the for- 
tress is subordinated to that given by Jehovah. This is meta- 
phor. If the writer had felt the sense of protection from 
Jehovah as less ideal in degree than that afforded by the physi- 
cal shelter, if his sense of satisfaction from some threatened 
danger had been realized more fully or at a later point of time 
in the case of the rock and the fortress, he would have said, 



TYPES 59 

"Thou art like a rock and a fortress to me." This would be 
simile. 

Simile is that figure of speech in which one object is said to 
be like another. As in the case of metaphor, the analogy is 
due to some type-quality common to both. Again there 
must be two pictures in the mind, but mere similarity is 
affirmed, not identity. " The Assyrian came down like the wolf 
on the fold." The reason the writer cast this in simile is be- 
cause to his mind the havoc wrought by the attack of the fierce 
wolf upon a defenceless flock of sheep represented to the 
highest degree the effect of that sudden descent of the Assyrians 
upon the unprepared and unsuspecting camp. It is difficult to 
conceive of more utter rout and disaster than happens to sheep 
under such circumstances, so that is taken as the type. 
The effect of the attack of the Assyrians is subordinated to 
it. Simile is used not because it is weaker, but because it best 
expresses the conditions of the scene. 

Allegory is that figure in which a literal expression is capable 
of figurative interpretation. To be pure allegory, it must be 
absolutely capable of either interpretation. It may be found in 
a word, a phrase, a clause, a sentence, a paragraph, or an en- 
tire book. It is commonly thought of in connection with the 
longer units, and is most important for elementary instruction 
in that form. Allegory resembles metaphor and simile in 
kind, but differs in degree. There is similarity as the basis. 
It is also an attempt to visualize some spiritual quality through 
a familiar literal form. It differs from the two other figures in 
the fact that but one picture is in consciousness at first. The 
literal must be so vivid that it holds all the attention for the 
moment. The interpretation must be in sub-consciousness, or 
must follow a moment later. 

"Pilgrim's Progress " is the most famous type of extended 
allegory. Many of our best hymns are allegorical, though they 



60 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

change their form, generally in an attempt to cause more com- 
plete interpretation of the feelings of the writer. " Rock of 
Ages, cleft for me, ' ' is mostly allegory. Parables are allegories 
that serve to teach some religious truth. Fables are allegories 
that are intended for ethical instruction. 

Figures change from one to another as best serves the writer's 
purpose. Teachers should make their own grasp of the sub- 
ject firm by working out many examples through all the de- 
grees of energy involved in each change so as to see to their own 
satisfaction that there is a reason for the form used. Good 
writers do not use figures merely as an embellishment, as is 
sometimes believed to be the case. If they are true to nature, 
they use the form that best carries their meaning. They may 
be over-imaginative, and their readers may fail to be moved as 
they were by the influence of the type-qualities portrayed. 
That is not the fault of the writer. It is the duty of the 
reader to try to put himself into a condition to be responsive 
in kind and in degree to the same feelings that moved the 
writer. It is the office of the teacher of reading to help pupils 
to retain that sensitiveness of imagination that is characteristic 
of youth. Almost every other subject of instruction is holding 
the pupil down to literal meanings. In reading the imagination 
can and should have full play. 

As a study in the change of forms, take the line, " Stonewall 
Jackson riding ahead." In the origin of the term " Stone- 
wall, ' ' some enthusiastic person might have been so energized 
by the picture of that firm soldier in the midst of the wavering 
raw recruits of that first battle, that he exclaimed, "The 
Stonewall stayed the advancing line. ' ' One who was familiar 
with the incidents of that battlefield would recognize this as the 
effort of a vivid imagination to express how that firmness seem- 
ed to the narrator and while having first the mental picture of 
a stone wall, would find that it shortly or almost immediately 



TYPES 61 

dissolved into that of the well-known general in advance of 
his wavering line, to whom his followers rallied to stop the 
movement of the oncoming charge. This would be sentence- 
allegory. Had the speaker recognized in Jackson the quality 
of firmness to such a degree that he was willing to take him for 
the moment as a type of firmness, to which all other instances 
of firmness might well be compared, he would have subordi- 
nated the same qualities as seen in a stone wall to those 
shown by Jackson, and would have said, " Jackson was the 
stone wall of the line at that crisis. ' ' Two pictures would 
then be in mind, one declared to be the same as the other, 
in some one respect. This is metaphor. 

If to the speaker the idea of firmness as shown by a stone 
wall, that cannot move, was the quality seen in the immobility 
of Jackson, who was held in his place by a sense of responsi- 
bility so strong that it took from him the power to move, even 
had he so desired, his attempt to represent that subordination 
of the human quality to that shown by the lifeless wall would 
take the form, "There stands Jackson like a stone wall." 
This is simile. 

To readers who are familiar enough with the setting to recog- 
nize any figure in the term "Stonewall Jackson," it is a meta- 
phor as used in the poem. 

In considering an upright man, the psalmist exclaims, " He 
shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water. ' ' Simile is 
natural here, for it would require an extreme activity of imagin- 
ation to place a man in the genus of trees, drawing sustenance 
from the ground. This very element of constant and abun- 
dant nourishment is the quality recognized, but a tree is a 
better representative of the type, so the human is subordinated 
to it. 

When the hot winds sweep over the sandy plains, a tree that 
does not have its roots deep in an unfailing supply of water soon 



62 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

gives evidence of the drain upon its vitality by its withered 
leaves. The external appearance shows the inward condition. 
So a man that is stricken by a blow that has deprived him of his 
courage, shows it soon externally. On the other hand, the 
man who can withstand adversity, calm and serene, sustained 
by a spiritual nourishment that gives him perennial vigor, so 
arouses the psalmist's enthusiasm that he accepts him as his 
type of that which has an abundant and unfailing source of 
nourishment. Under the unconscious influence of the simile 
just in mind, he boldly projects the one picture upon the other, 
accepts them as identical, and declares in the same sentence 
with the simile, "His leaf also shall not wither." This is 
clause-metaphor. 

Metonymy is that figure of speech in which one thing is 
named instead of another of which the first is a type. " He 
kept the table in a roar. ' ' The table is the prominent thing 
connected with a banquet. " He arose and addressed the 
chair." The " chair" is the sign of the office. " Gray hairs 
should be respected." " Gray hairs," the type of age. 

Synecdoche is that figure of speech in which one thing is 
named instead of another of which the first is a typical part. 
" A hundred sail are in the bay. ' ' The sail is a typical part of 
the ship. " She was a child of ten summers. ' ' The summer is 
a typical part of the year. " He employed ten hands." The 
hands are the type for the whole men. Notice that in metony- 
my one thing is named for another, of which it is no part, but 
merely associated with it. In synecdoche the one thing is 
really the part of the other. 

Personification is that figure of speech in which inanimate 
things are given attributes of life. This is sometimes done by 
the use of adjectives; as, the howling wind. By means of verbs, 
inanimate things are represented as acting as if living beings; 
as, the wind howled. In combination with Apostrophe, the 



TYPES 63 

figure is used in direct address; as, " Come to the bridal cham- 
ber, Death!" 

Personification is metaphorical in its nature in the above illus- 
trations, inasmuch as two identical pictures are in mind. It 
can be allegorical, when the mind is primarily conscious of but 
one picture, which is that of some lifeless object endowed with 
life, or of an animal having human attributes. Fables and 
stories of the type of "Jack Frost" represent allegorical 
personification. 

Apostrophe is the direct address of the absent as if present, of 
the dead as if living, and of inanimate things as if living. It 
often includes personification, and can be either metaphorical 
or allegorical in its nature. 

" Thou hast taught me, Silent River, 
Many a lesson, deep and long. ' ' 

This is an apostrophe in which the river is metaphorically 
personified. 

" O Death, where is thy sting ? " 

This is an apostrophe in which death is personified in a way 
that might be allegorical to one having a vivid imagination. 

It is the business of the teacher to cultivate in the 
pupil the power to recognize and feel type-qualities. 
These exercises are profitable : — 

1. Have the pupils explain given types. 

2. Have the pupils find and explain types. 

3. Have the pupils tell certain things by means of types. 

4. Have the pupils classify types according to the figures 
of speech. 



64 ESSENTIALS OF READING 



EXERCISES 

PICK OUT, INTERPRET, AND CLASSIFY THE TYPES 

Silently one by one, in the infinite meadows of heaven, 
Blossomed the lovely stars, the forget-me-nots of the angels. 

Longfellow. 

Fair as the earliest beam of eastern light, 
Shine martial Faith, and Courtesy's bright star. 

Scott. 

"Dance, Marabout, " shouted the reckless warders, as much delighted 
at having a subject to tease as a child when he catches a butterfly, or a 
school-boy upon discovering a bird's nest. The Marabout, as if happy 
to do their behests, bounded from the earth, and spun his giddy round 
before them with singular agility, which when contrasted with his slight 
and wasted figure and diminutive appearance, made him resemble a 
withered leaf twirled round and around at the pleasure of the winter's 
breeze. 

Then the whining school-boy, with his satchel and shining morning 
face, creeping like snail unwillingly to school. And then the lover, sighing 
like furnace, with woeful ballad made to his mistress' eyebrows. 

Shakespeare. 

Once as I told in glee 
Tales of the stormy sea, 
Soft eyes did gaze on me, 
Burning, yet tender; 
And as the white stars shine 
On the dark Norway pine, 
On that dark heart of mine 
Fell their soft splendor. 

As with his wings aslant, 

Sails the fierce cormorant, 

Seeking some rocky haunt, 

With his prey laden, 

So toward the open main, 

Beating to sea again, 

Through the wild hurricane, Longfellow. 

Bore I the maiden. 

Thou, too, sail on, O Ship of State! 
Sail on, O Union, strong and great 1 

Longfellow. 



TYPES 65 

"Hence is the inner life of so many suffering women 

Sunless and silent and deep, like subterranean rivers 

Running through caverns of darkness, with endless and profitless 

murmurs." 
Thereupon answered John Alden, the young man, the lover of women: 
"Heaven forbid it, Priscilla, and truly they seem to me always 
More like the beautiful rivers that watered the garden of Eden, 
More like the river Euphrates, through deserts of Havilah flowing, 
Filling the land with delight, and memories sweet of the garden!" 

Longfellow. 

Then her tears 
Broke forth a flood, as when the August cloud, 
Darkening beside the mountain, suddenly 
Melts into streams of rain. 

Bryant. 

So, on the bloody sand, Sohrab lay dead; 

And the great Rustum drew his horseman's cloak 

Down o'er his face, and sate by his dead son. 

As those black granite pillars, once high-rear'd 

By Jemshid in Persepolis, to bear 

His house, now 'mid their broken flights of steps 

Lie prone, enormous, down the mountain side — 

So in the sand lay Rustum by his son. 

Matthew Arnold. 

By and by 
The ruddy square of comfortable light, 
Far-blazing from the rear of Philip's house, 
Allured him, as the beacon blaze allures 
The bird of passage, till he madly strikes 
Against it, and beats out his weary life. 

Tennyson. 

In conclusion, let us notice one of the finest poems in litera- 
ture, one built around a type. A beautiful thought came to the 
poet. He wished to give it to the world. He wished to give it 
in such a way that it would enter men's souls. He sought for a 
type. He found it in a little broken sea -shell cast at his feet by 
the waves. The tenant of the shell had built around himself 



66 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

his first small abode. Then he had added a larger room to his 
home, moved into it, and walled up the old room, now too small 
for his use. So the Nautilus, for that is the name of the little 
being, built its spiral shell in gradually increasing cham- 
bers until the end of its little life came, and it left its empty 
shell, its last abode unwalled and open. 

The poet devotes three stanzas to a description of his type; 
one stanza, the fourth, to the introduction of the truth of which 
the chambered Nautilus is a type; and one stanza, the last, to 
the thought itself. 

THE CHAMBERED NAUTILUS 

OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES 

This is the ship of pearl, which, poets feign, 
Sails the unshadowed main, — 
The venturous bark that flings 
On the sweet summer wind its purpled wings 
In gulfs enchanted, where the siren sings, 
And coral reefs lie bare, 
Where the cold sea-maids rise to sun their streaming hair- 
Its webs of living gauze no more unfurl; 
Wrecked is the ship of pearl! 
And every chambered cell, 
Where its dim dreaming life was wont to dwell, 
As the frail tenant shaped his growing shell, 
Before thee lies revealed,— 
Its irised ceiling rent, its sunless crypt unsealed! 

Year after year beheld the silent toil 

That spread his lustrous coil; 
Still, as the spiral grew, 
He left the past year's dwelling for the new 
Stole with soft step its shining archway through, 
Built up its idle door, 
Stretched in his last-found home, and knew the old no more. 

Thanks for the heavenly message brought by thee, 
Child of the wandering sea, 



TYPES 67 

Cast from her lap, forlorn! 
From thy dead lips a clearer note is born 
Than ever Triton blew from wreathed horn! 

While on my ear it rings, 
Through the deep caves of thought I hear a voice that sings: — 

Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul, 
As the swift seasons roll! 
Leave thy low-vaulted past! 
Let each new temple, nobler than the last, 
Shut thee from heaven with a dome more vast, 
Till thou at length art free, 
Leaving thine outgrown shell by life's unresting sea! 



OUTLINE OF CHAPTER VII 
TYPES 
Function of types. 
Examples. 
Figures of speech. 

Metaphor. 

Simile. 

Allegory. 

Metonymy. 

Synecdoche. 

Personification. 

Apostrophe. 
Exercises. 

"The Chambered Nautilus." 

FOR REVIEW AND SUGGESTION 

1. What is a type? Why do authors use types ? 

2. What is a type of purity ? Of humility? Of vanity? 

3. Of what is the fox a type? The goose? An oak? A reed? 

4. What is a metaphor ? How is it based on types ? 

5. How does simile differ from metaphor? 

6. What is an allegory ? Name some famous allegories. 

7. Is an allegory necessarily long ? How long? 

8. What figure in the parable of the Sower ? 



68 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

9. What is the purpose of a parable ? 

10. What figure in the fable of the Fox and the Grapes? 

11. What is the purpose of a fable? 

12. In what respect are parables and fables similar ? How do they 
differ? 

13. What duty has the teacher toward the pupils in regard to figures ? 

14. When should classification of figures be taught ? 

15. Explain metonymy. Synecdoche. 

16. What is personification? Give an allegorical personification. 

1 7. What is apostrophe ? Give an example of apostrophe not in- 
cluding personification. 

18. Give an example of apostrophe metaphorically personified. 

19. Explain the figures in " The Chambered Nautilus." 



CHAPTER VIII 
EFFECTS 

He strode to Gauthier, in his throat 
Gave him the lie, then struck his mouth 
With one back-handed blow that wrote 
In blood men's verdict there. North, South, 
East, West, I looked. The lie was dead 
And damned, and truth stood up instead. 

The lines are from Robert Browning's " Count Gismond. " 
The Countess Gismond is telling a friend of the circumstances 
under which she first met her husband, and of the events that 
led to their union. She has told how at a time when she, as 
queen of a tournament, was at the climax of pride and happi- 
ness, Count Gauthier had suddenly and publicly accused her of 
a shameful crime. Stunned by the horror of the accusation, 
she was speechless, until Count Gismond " Strode to Gauthier," 
etc. 

Let us see how much the author has told us in the well-chosen 
words of the brief scene. " Strode" tells us of the fearlessness 
and indignation of Gismond. Gauthier had " stalked forth." 
" In his throat, ' ' no beating about the bush, no polite introduc- 
tion of the subject, but words clear and strong. " Struck his 
mouth," shows the degree of Gismond's anger. " With 
one back-handed blow," Gismond thoroughly despised this 
dastard, but even this sentiment was energetic, for his blow 
" wrote in blood." " North, South, East, West, I looked," 
the heroine, though innocent, had been beaten down by the 
mere accusation; now she feels herself cleared. 

So we find something of the story, and very much of the char- 
acters and moods of the actors, told us in few words. Let us 

6o 



7o ESSENTIALS OF READING 

see how this is accomplished. Gismond was fearless in charac- 
ter and indignant in mood. A result of this character and this 
mood was the particular way in which he walked. The same 
character and mood caused Gismond to give the lie to Gauth- 
ier "in his throat." The fact that Gismond despised and 
scorned Gauthier, had for its effect the " back-handed blow." 
The energy of the blow is shown by its effect, the drawing of 
blood. The regained assurance of the woman is shown in its 
effect in her looking " North, South, East, West. " In fact all 
that we know of the characters and moods of these persons is 
told us by the effects caused by the characters and moods. 
The supreme source of strength in literature is the abil- 
ity to produce the greatest result by the fewest means. 
Authors do this by telling effects and allowing the im- 
agination and reason of the reader to construct the causes. 
The reader by the process of inference secures a much 
stronger idea than he could obtain from simple descriptive 
words. For example, Maclaren wishes to make vivid the ob- 
stinacy of the Scotch, and he says: " And they stood longest 
in the kirk yard when the north wind blew across a hundred 
miles of snow. ' ' Again he wishes to show how great was the 
grief of the old doctor when he could not save the life of Annie, 
the wife of Tammas, and he says merely this, " a' saw the Doc- 
tor shake in his saddle. " The doctor finally saves the life of 
Saunders after a terrible combat with the fever. The author 
wishes to tell us how the old doctor felt over the victory. Does 
he use the words happy and joyful ? Not he. He tells us how 
Drumsheugh followed the old man, crippled by accident and 
stiffened by exposure, as he went out into the fields after the 
great exertions of the night. Then the author tells us how the 
old doctor flung his coat west and his waist-coat east, as far as 
he could hurl them, how he struck Drumsheugh a mighty blow, 
and began to fling his limbs about in strange and weird contor- 



EFFECTS 71 

tions. " Then it dawns upon Drumsheugh that the doctor was 
attempting the Highland fling. ' ' From the physical effect of 
the doctor's joy, we know how great it must have been. 

Effects may be classified into effects of incident, effects 
of character, and effects of mood. Effects of incident are 
those from which the reader or hearer infers something which 
has happened or is happening or may happen, or some state or 
condition. Suppose that we are given this effect: " Two boys 
with blackened eyes and swollen noses slunk through the door 
and into their seats. ' ' We infer that there has been a personal 
encounter between the two young Americans. This is an effect 
of incident. 

Effects of character are those from which we infer some- 
thing concerning some person's character. This striking 
illustration appeared in an article in the Northwestern Monthly. 
" A minister shaved the hair above his forehead in such a way 
that his brow appeared higher." What was the character of 
the minister ? 

We find this bit of characterization in the " Bonnie Brier 
Bush." " He lifted up the soiled rose and put it in his coat; 
he released a butterfly caught in some mesh; he buried his face 
in fragrant honeysuckle. ' ' 

Effects of mood are those from which we infer something 
concerning the mental state of some person. We find a 
fine example in " Enoch Arden. ' ' Philip and Enoch both love 
Annie. Philip by chance comes upon Enoch and Annie just 
after they have declared their love. The grief of Philip is 
shown by a powerful effect: 

Philip looked; 
Then as their faces grew together, groaned, 
And slipt aside, and like a wounded life, 
Crept down into the hollows of the wood. 

It is by an effect that the actor in " Shore Acres " repre- 



72 . ESSENTIALS OF READING 

senting the old farmer, shows the dislike and irritability of the 
old man towards his daughter's worthless suitor. The old man 
is represented sitting on a box in his barnyard. He is 
whittling. The shavings drop off slowly and methodically as 
the old man whistles softly to himself. The young man 
approaches. The farmer does not appear to see him, no words 
are spoken, but the whistle ceases, and the shavings drop 
faster and faster until they fairly fly from the knife. What is 
the mood of the old farmer ? 

Effects can be classified as effects of kind and effects of 
degree. The purpose of an effect of kind is to show what 
is the particular incident, mood, or trait of character. The lit- 
erature of child-life, especially for the earlier years, will be con- 
cerned more with this form. More advanced grades of litera- 
ture will not be satisfied with ideas of kind, but will be 
concerned in showing how great was the intensity of the idea 
involved. King Midas had been told that the golden touch 
would leave him if he bathed in the river at sunrise. He started 
at once for the river, though it was many hours before sunrise. 
We infer not only that he wished to be released from this once 
desired power, but also how anxious he was for the change. 
When he runs with the pitcher to sprinkle water on the form of 
Mary, we infer not only his love, but what is more important, 
how great is that love. The spectacle of a king, accustomed to 
having every want attended by others, now running at utmost 
speed to relieve his daughter from her unfortunate condition, 
enables us to measure the degree of his feeling. The incident 
of the dog that tried to call his master's attention to the loss of 
his purse, and that crawled back to die beside it, after being shot 
by his master under the belief that he had gone mad, is told not 
so much to show that the dog was faithful, but because of ad- 
miration arising from the degree of faithfulness. 

Effects of degree can be used to include the effect of kind, or 



EFFECTS 73 

they can be given to increase the strength of an idea already 
given. " For a long time Mary looked longingly at the pies 
and cakes in the baker's window. ' ' This is an effect of kind. 
From it we infer that Mary was hungry. " When the baker 
held out the bun toward her, her claw-like fingers snatched 
it. In two bites, it was gone. ' ' This effect tells us nothing 
more about Mary's peculiar condition. It gives us an idea of 
the degree of her hunger, and is an effect of degree. 

All effects of degree are effects of kind, but the purpose of the 
effect is different. It is not a valuable exercise in elementary 
schools to have pupils classify effects into formal lists of kind 
and degree, but it is most helpful to have them conscious of the 
purpose of degree effects as they occur in a passage for the aid 
it gives in interpreting the meaning. It gives the author's point 
of view. 

It is the business of the teacher to train the pupil to de- 
tect effects and feel their power. No new power need be 
sought. A fair degree of reason is all that is needed. 
Children select their friends by inferring causes from effects. 
The employer selects his employee thus. Even a dog judges 
the sentiments of a person toward dogs, from effects. We all 
judge mood from the curve of the lip, the flush of the face, the 
wrinkling of the brow. 

These exercises are valuable : — 

i. Have the pupils draw inferences from given effects. 

2. Have pupils find and interpret effects of a specified kind. 

3. Have pupils tell certain things by effects. 

4. Have pupils classify effects into effects of incident, 
mood and character. 

In all this work, the teacher should keep the direction of the 
work under her control, and see that the emphasis is given to 
the noble and the beautiful. If undirected, it is liable to degen- 
erate into unkindness and caricature. 



74 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

The following is given as a further illustration of effects and 
the method of work. It is intended for the use of the teacher . 
The use of dialect selections with pupils is not to be advised. 

THE COURTIN' 

James Russell Lowell. 
God makes sech nights, all white an' still 

Fur'z you. can look or listen, 
Moonshine an' snow on field arr hill 

All silence an' all glisten. 

What was the season ? 

What was the place ? (Effects of incident.) 

Zekle crep' up quite unbeknown 

An' peeked in thru' the winder, 
An' there sot Huldy all alone, 

'Ith no one nigh to hender. 

Who was Zekle? (Effect of incident.) How did he feel? 
(Effect of mood.) Does Huldy 's being alone tell you any- 
thing about the thoughtfulness of Huldy's family ? (Effects of 
character.) 

A fireplace filled the room's one side. 

With half a cord o' wood in — 
There warn't no stoves (tell comfort died) 

To bake ye to a puddin'. 
The wa'nut logs shot sparkles out 

Toward the pootiest, bless her, 
An' leetle flames danced all about 

The chiny on the dresser. 
Agin the chimbley crook-necks hung 

An' in amongst 'em rusted 
The old queen's-arm thet gran'ther Young 

Fetched back from Concord, busted. 

What adjectives would you use in describing this home? 
What kind of people lived there? (Effect of character.) 
What part of the country was this ? 



EFFECTS 75 

The very room, coz she was in, 

Seemed warm from floor to ceilin'; 
And she looked full ez rosy agin 

Ez the apples she was peelin'. 

What kind of a girl was she ? Does the following stanza do 
anything more than confirm your idea ? 

'Twas kin' o' kingdom come to look 

On sich a blessed cretur, 
A dog-rose blushin' to a brook 

Ain't modester nor sweeter. 

He was six foot o' man, A-i , 

Clear grit an human natur'; 
None couldn't quicker pitch a ton 

Nor dror a furrer straighter. 

What do the last two lines tell you about Zekle ? What do 
the next four tell you ? 

He'd sparked it with full twenty gals, 
He'd squired 'em, danced 'em, druv 'em, 

First this one, an' then thet, by spells — 
All is, he couldn't love 'em. 

But long o' her his veins 'ould run 

All crinkly like curled maple; 
The side she breshed felt full o' sun 

Ez a south slope in Ap'il. 

What was the trouble with Zekle ? What kind of an effect ? 

She thought no v'ice hed sech a swing 

Ez hisn in the choir; 
My! when he made Ole Hundred ring, 

She knowed the Lord was nigher. 

An' she'd blush scarlit, right in prayer, 

When her new meetin'-bunnet 
Felt somehow thru' its crown a pair 

O' blue eyes sot upun it. 



76 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

What was the trouble with Huldy ? What effects ? 

Thet night, I tell ye, she looked some! 

She seemed to've gut a new soul, 
For she felt sartin sure he'd come, 

Down to her very shoe sole. 

What effects in these lines: 

She heered a foot, and knowed it tu, 

A-raspin' on the scraper 
All ways to once her feelin's flew 

Like sparks in burnt-up paper. 

He kin' o' 1'itered on the mat, 

Some doubtfle o' the sekle, 
His heart kep' goin' pity-pat, 

But hern went pity Zekle. 

What effects here? What kind of effects? 

An' yit she gin her cheer a jerk 

Ez though she wished him furder, 
An' on her apples kep' to work 

Parin' away like murder. 

Why did she act so ? Was it an effect of character ? What 
is Lowell 's explanation ? See four lines below. 

"You want to see my Pa, I s'pose?" 

"Wal — no — I come dasignin' " — 
"To see my Ma? She's sprinklin' clothes 

Agin tomorrer's i'nin." 

To say why gals act so or so, 

Or don't, 'ould be presumin'; 
Mebby to mean YES an' say NO 

Comes nateral to women. 

He stood a spell on one foot fust, 

Then stood a spell on t'other, 
An' on which one he felt the wust 

He couldn't ha' told ye nuther. 



EFFECTS 77 

What effects of mood ? 

Says he, ''I'd better call agin;" 

Says she, "Think likely, Mister;" 
Thet last word pricked him like a pin, 

An' — wal, he up an' kist her. 

Does the last line throw any more light on Zekle's nature? 

When Ma bimeby upon 'em slips, 

Huldy sot pale ez ashes, 
All kin' o' smily round the lips 

An' teary round the lashes. 

What kind of a mother had Huldy ? Notice "bimeby ' " and 
remember that " There sot Huldy all alone." What kind of 
a nature had Huldy ? Are the following lines necessary ? Do 
they not merely confirm the inference gained by these effects ? 

For she was jes' the quiet kind 

Whose naturs never vary, 
Like streams that keep a summer mind 

Snow-hid in Jenooary. 

The blood clost roun' her heart felt glued 

Too tight for all expressing 
Tell mother see how metters stood, 

An' gin 'em both her blessin'. 

Then her red come back like the tide 

Down to the Bay o' Fundy, 
An' all I know is they was cried 

In meetin' come nex' Sunday 

The crying of the banns is an effect of incident. What do 
you infer from it? 

For further practice interpret and classify the effects in the 
following: — 



78 ESSENTIALS OF READING 



EXERCISES 

Suddenly Ichabod heard a groan, — his teeth chattered, and his knees 
smote against the saddle: it was but the rubbing of one huge bough 
upon another, as they were swayed about by the breeze. 

Irving. 

He only meant to walk up and down her street, so that she might 
see him from the window, and know that this splendid thing was he 

Barrie. 
She answered not with railing words, 
But drew her apron o'er her face, 
And sobbing glided from the place. 

Whittier. 

He had the keenest eyes in Clanruadh and was a dead shot. Yet 
he never stalked a deer, never killed anything for mere sport. 

MacDonald. 
There is an old poor man, 
Who after me hath many a weary step 
Limped in pure love: till he be first sufficed, 
Oppressed with two weak evils, age and hunger, 
I will not touch a bit. 

Shakespeare. 

A yellow claw — the very same that had clawed together so much 
wealth — poked itself out of the coach-window, and dropt some copper 
coins upon the ground. 

Hawthorne. 

As the life boat returned from the wreck, the men on shore shouted 
themselves hoarse, the women laughed and cried. 

Anon. 

The old man read the notice, pulled down his hat over his eyes, drew 
his cloak closely up under his chin, and went quickly down the dune. 

Hugo. 
Some of the men began to lag behind, dragging their guns and limp- 
ing with bleeding feet. Other men with bloody bandages about their 
heads could be seen in the hurrying wagons. 

Anon. 

The two young Cratchits crammed spoons into their mouths lest they 
should shriek for goose before their turn came to be helped. 

Dickens. 



EFFECTS 79 

He parted in twain his single crust, 

He broke the ice on the streamlet's brink, 

And gave the leper to eat and drink. 

Lowell. 

He placed the guns together with a good supply of ammunition, 
under the loop-holes by which the enemy must advance. 

Anon. 

OUTLINE OF CHAPTER VIII 

EFFECTS 
Function of effects. 

Examples. 
Classification of effects. 

Incident. 

Character. 

Mood. 

Kind. 

Degree. 
The duty of the teacher. 
Exercises. 

FOR REVIEW AND SUGGESTION 

i . What is the supreme source of strength in literature ? 

2 . What are effects ? 

3. Why is the name appropriate ? 

4. How may effects be classified ? 

5. How early in the grades is effect work profitable? 

6. How does an effect of degree differ from an effect of kind? 

7. Of what value is the classifying of effects as a school exercise? 

8. What is the duty of the teacher in regard to effects? 

9. How can a teacher tell when her duty is accomplished? 

10. How does effect work influence the child's liking for literature? 

1 1 . Give some exercises in effects ? 

1 2 . Discuss the frequency of inferring effects in every day life. 

13. What kind of effects should not be studied? 

14. What authors are especially skillful in using effects? 

15. Can the use of effects be overdone? 



PART III 



METHODS 



HOW THE TEACHER MAY SECURE GOOD 
RESULTS IN READING 



CHAPTER IX 

TEACHING BEGINNERS TO READ 

Primary Methods. The teacher of reading should be 
familiar with those methods which in the past have been 
generally adopted and approved. Among the best known 
methods are these:* 

The Alphabet, or A B C Method. 

The Phonic Method. 

The Word Method. 

The Sentence Method. 

The Story Method. 

The Alphabet Method. In following the Alphabet 
Method, pupils are first taught to recognize and to name 
the letters of the alphabet, then to combine those letters 
into such short words as cat, run, go, do or is. When a 
number of words have been learned they are used in such 
brief sentences as, 

I see the cat. 
The cat can run. 
The girl has a doll. 

New words and sentences are gradually added and fixed 
in mind by spelling and reading drills. 

The Phonic Method. Like the Alphabet Method, the 
Phonic Method is synthetic in its processes, and assumes 
the establishing of a vocabulary to be the first step in 

* For discussions of special primary devices, the teacher should 
consult such manuals as those of the Ward Method, Aldine Method 
Beacon Method, Parmly Method, and the Gordon Method. , 

§3 



84 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

learning to read. The sounds of the letters are taught first 
and then combined into phonograms, such as at, am, ake, ell, 
ound, bl, fr, ch, spl, and then into words. These words are 
taught in groups each repeating a familiar phonogram, as : 

hat cake bell round 

mat bake tell found 

fat make spell ground 

sat take shell sound 

The words thus learned are then used in sentences. 

The Word Method. The Word Method uses the word 
as the starting point. In a first lesson children are taught 
to recognize a word without first learning the letters or the 
sounds of which it is composed. Such words as boy, girl, play, 
little, run, can, jump are taught in this way. When several 
words have been learned, they are used in sentences ; such as, 

Run, little boy. 
Jump, little girl. 
A boy can run. 
A girl can play. 

New words are taught daily and added to the words of 
the reading lesson. Later pupils are taught to separate 
words into their sound elements and to build r .new words in 
the same phonic group. 

The Sentence Method. The Sentence Method is like 
the Word Method save that the teacher in starting presents 
one or two short sentences instead of the letter or the word 
for the first reading lesson; as, 

I see a flower. 
The flower is blue. 



or 



Good morning, little girl. 
Good morning, little boy. 



TEACHING BEGINNERS TO READ 85 

The sentences are read to the children who read them in 
turn, recognizing them by their differences in form. After 
a number of sentences have been taught, attention is 
directed to the words, and the children are taught to recog- 
nize them at sight. Phonics are developed by word analysis 
the same as in the Word Method. 

The Story Method. The Story Method uses the sentence 
group, or story, as the starting point. This story may be 
in rhyme; as, 

Jack and Jill 

Went up the hill 

To fetch a pail of water. 

Jack fell down 

And broke his crown 

And Jill came tumbling after. 

Or the first story may be in prose; as, 

Once upon a time there was a little boy. 

He took care of his sheep. 

He called, "Wolf! Wolf!" 

When the men came, there was no wolf there. 

One day the wolf came. 

The boy called, "Wolf! Wolf!" 

The men did not believe him. 

The wolf ate the sheep. 

The story is first told to the children, then placed upon . 
the blackboard or chart and read to them. Through inter- 
est in the story and through repeated readings, the children 
soon memorize the sentences and are able to read the story. 
Attention is then directed toward certain words which are 
repeatedly written upon the board to be memorized. In 
this way a vocabulary is established. Later, phonics are 
developed in the same way as in the Word Method. 



86 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

Methods Compared. To compare and to judge these 
various methods intelligently requires a knowledge not 
only of the methods themselves but also of the mental 
processes by which a child learns to read. Of one thing we 
may be certain; when the ideal method of reading is 
attained it will be the one which conforms most nearly with 
the way in which nature intended that a child should learn. 

It is not strange that the Alphabet Method found favor 
for so many years. In teaching any subject one starts 
from what seems to be the easiest point. It was only 
natural to think it easier to teach a single letter than a 
whole word. To teach the alphabet to beginners may seem 
a simple undertaking but no doubt many a young teacher 
has been surprised and discouraged to find how hard it is 
for children to recognize and to remember these letter 
forms. There is a reason for the children's seeming dull- 
ness. 

Suppose that your teacher wishes to teach you two 
Spanish words, so she says "Bandera means fahne. Caballo 
means pferd. Now tell me the meaning of bandera and 
caballo." 

Why is it that you have difficulty in aswering? Because 
instead of explaining the unfamiliar word in terms which 
you already know she has used something which you do 
not know, and the whole combination means nothing to 
you. But suppose your teacher says, "Bandera means 
flag. Caballo means horse." In a flash you have a mental 
image of the familiar flag and horse. How readily you can 
now tell the meaning of the two Spanish words! 

The same thing happens when we attempt to teach a 
child the letters of the alphabet. We say, "This letter is a." 
The form of the letter is new to him, the name is new to 
him and, as in the instance of the Spanish and German 



TEACHING BEGINNERS TO READ 87 

words, we are trying to teach two unknown things without 
any familiar thing with which to associate them. If 
instead of the letter we use the word book or doll there is the 
familiar name and mental image with which to associate 
the new form. 

The Word and Sentence Methods, as well as the Story 
Method, are superior to the Alphabet and Phonic Methods 
in that they have greater possibilities of direct appeal to 
the child's interest. Little has ever been learned by the 
child or by the adult save where interest in one form or 
another held and compelled the attention. The manner in 
which interest is aroused and sustained is the one really 
important thing in the teaching of reading. 

Sources of Interest. Interest in the reading lesson has 
two sources. The first source is found in the child's wish 
to be able to read. He is interested in the words and letters 
of the printed page because through them he is to acquire 
the desired skill. This is the kind of interest which makes 
it possible for a child to learn to read even when the lessons 
are dull and unattractive. Such interest is compelled in 
various ways. A child may want to read because he knows 
that he will take pride in displaying that particular skill; 
or he may want to read because he knows that it is the cus- 
tomary thing for the beginner. Others are doing it and his 
teacher and parents expect it of him. 

The second source of interest is found in the reading 
matter itself. The child wishes to read because he is eager 
to enjoy the message which the printed page holds for him. 
His enjoyment may come through the appeal of a story, 
rhyme, game, or subject which is dear to childhood. The 
child who learns in this way is so intent upon what he is 
reading that he gives little thought to the skill which he is 
acquiring. Both of these sources of interest are good, help- 



ESSENTIALS OF READING 



f ul, and perfectly legitimate. However, the interest aroused 
in the second instance has much more value than that 
aroused in the first because it is a natural interest. In the 
first instance, the child thinks of himself; in the second, he 
loses sight of self in love for the thing taught. The teacher 
who says, "Now study hard and show me what a good les- 
son you can have," appeals to the artificial interest. The 
teacher who says, for instance, "There is a boy in to-day's 
lesson who did a strange thing. I wonder what you would 
have done in his place," appeals to the natural interest. 
The teacher who fills her daily reading lessons with natural 
interest will seldom have to resort to artificial interest to 
spur her pupils on. 

Making the Work Interesting. For years we have talked 
of "making work interesting" without stopping to think 
tha<t reading does not have to be made interesting. It is 
interesting, until that interest is buried under a rubbish 
heap of letters, stiff, ugly sentences, and mechanical 
classifications. Our attitude toward teaching a child to 
read has been at fault. We assume that it is a difficult 
task which must be sugar coated in order that a child may 
enjoy it. Learning to talk is more difficult than learning 
to read, yet we do not fear that a child will not be interested 
in that. 

A normal child is a bundle of activities clamoring for 
expression. Some of these activities find expression in 
playing, running, jumping, or in catching a ball. Some 
children find the means of expression in creating things; as 
mud pies, block houses, forts, bridges, roads. Others find 
expression in conversation, in receiving the thought of 
others and giving back one's own. Still others find ex- 
pression in reading, in getting and in giving the thought of 
the printed page. 



TEACHING BEGINNERS TO READ 89 

Give the proper conditions and you cannot keep a child 
from learning to read. He will learn to read as easily and 
as readily as he learned to talk, and with astonishing 
rapidity. What are these proper conditions? They may 
be sifted down to two. 

First. The lesson shall be presented only when the 
child is longing for it, when his whole little being is crying 
out, "Show me this thing." 

Second. The child must be allowed to gain the end for 
which his activities are clamoring without meeting enough 
difficulties to cause a discouraging fatigue. 

The teacher's problem is to produce these conditions 
or conditions as near to these as her circumstances per- 
mit. 

Let us consider the first condition. If a teacher had but 
one pupil and unlimited time, she might follow the natural 
and ideal method of teaching him only when he asked for 
help. She could then be certain of a truly receptive mood; 
but with the number of pupils and with the set program 
which school life necessitates, she cannot do that. It is 
improbable that all children in a class would be eager for 
the same thing at the same time unless aided by some out- 
side stimulus. 

Since desire to read is to be found planted deep in the 
heart of nearly every child entering school, the teacher's 
task is to bring that desire to the surface. She should talk 
to the little ones, individually and collectively, of the joy 
of learning to read. She should never speak or think of 
reading as a difficult task but should refer to it only as the 
fascinating occupation which it really is. She should take 
occasion to whisper to this child or that, telling how pleased 
she is that at last he is old enough to read. She should 
take time to show him attractive lessons that he is soon to 



Qo ESSENTIALS OF READING 

learn, and as a special privilege should allow him to hold 
the book in his own hands. 

If children know that a teacher's interest in their reading 
is not merely for the few minutes of the recitation, but is 
of sufficient importance to be mentioned and thought of 
even in playtime, it will help to bring them to class with a 
spirit as nearly approaching that of spontaneous interest as 
it is possible for any group of individuals to attain. Having 
aroused the desire to read, in order to fulfil the second 
condition we must provide the kind of reading material 
that will satisfy that desire. The desire to read is not 
satisfied by learning a or b. The desire to read is satisfied 
by reading, and by reading something which appeals to 
childhood. 

First Steps with the Beginner. Children are interested 
in plays, in toys, in pets, in rhymes, in stories. Any one of 
these is a good subject for a first lesson. If the teacher 
has been wise enough to provide herself with some attrac- 
tive toy, she will find the first steps made easy. Suppose 
that in this case it is a doll. Any inexpensive, little doll 
will do; but if it has eyes that open and close, its charm 
will be doubled. Some scraps of cloth and a little time 
are all that are needed to provide Dolly with a few 
fluffy garments dear to the child's heart. If in addition 
to this a teacher chooses to line a tiny basket for a cradle, 
she has a toy which will prove an inspiration for many 
lessons. 

At first, Dolly may be hidden in a mysterious box and the 
children led to guess what is in the box. Finally the treas- 
ure is brought forth and little fingers are allowed to stroke 
the soft hair and to touch the dainty garments. The 
teacher asks, "Who would like to hold Dolly?" then 
quickly adds, "I will hold her first because she likes this 



TEACHING BEGINNERS TO READ 91 

little lullaby and I know how to read it to her." She turns 
to the board where she has previously written: 

Go to sleep, Dolly, 

Go to sleep, Dear, 

Go to sleep, Dolly, 

Mother is here. 
The teacher points to each line as she reads, holding Dolly 
so that the eyes close, and rocking her gently. By the 
time she has repeated the lullaby some little one will be 
ready to read it to Dolly and others will be eager to follow. 

A following lesson might be: 

Wake up, my dolly, 

Wake up, my dear; 

Wake up, my dolly, 

Mother is here. 
After reading these lessons ask the children to find the word 
which says Dolly, the word which says Mother. Then 
write many times upon the board for the children to read: 

Go to sleep. 

Wake up. 
Write single words as, Mother, sleep, Dolly and my for the 
children to recognize and to name. 

Perhaps, in place of a doll, the teacher has provided a 
ball, or better still, several balls in contrasting colors. 
Selecting one of these she may say something like this: 

"Who can read? What! is there no one here who can 
read? Too bad! I know some lovely games we could 
play if you could only read. You would like to read, 
wouldn't you? I thought so. Well, I know you could 
read if I were to write something easy enough. I'll just 
write: See my ball here on the blackboard. You can read 
See my ball, can't you?" 



9 2 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

They will all be ready to try it, and after several have 
read the sentence she may add: 

See my red ball. 
See my blue ball. 

She may then write ball, my, see, red and blue in different 
places on the board, and have the children compare and 
name the words. 

Preparing to Use the Primer. Before starting her work, 
it is well for the teacher to examine carefully the primer 
which she is to use. A good primer should appeal to 
children in two ways; first, through subject matter which is 
of itself attractive, as jingles, stories or bright little sen- 
tences relating to child life; second, through subject matter 
so simple that a child may read it without fatigue. Any 
primer should be supplemented by exercises in repetition 
like the following which help to make the pupils familiar 
with the new words as they are introduced. 

Come with me. 
Play with me. 
Run with me. 
Go with me. 



or, 



or, 



John has a red flower. 
I have a blue flower. 
You have a yellow flower. 
Helen has a pink flower. 

This girl's name is Mary. 
This boy's name is John. 
This doll's name is Fan. 
This baby's name is Jack. 



TEACHING BEGINNERS TO READ 93 

or, 

I have a ball. 

I can roll the ball. 

I have a book. 

I can read the book. 

I have a doll. 

I can sing to the doll. 

Such lessons do not appeal to a child in the same manner 
that a story does, but he enjoys the exercises because of 
the repetition which makes them very easy. He is en- 
couraged because here is something which he can read at 
sight and the skill acquired will make it easier for him to 
read and enjoy stories later. Love of the story may be 
developed by using for board work Mother Goose rhymes, 
nursery tales retold in short easy sentences, or a group of 
sentences relating events in the child's play or daily experi- 
ence. The primer to be used will necessarily be the guide 
for the vocabulary and first lessons taught. It is best to 
make a list of the first fifty or seventy-five words occurring 
in the book. These should form a part of the words to be 
taught in the first board lessons. 

Word Cards. A great help in fixing new words in mind 
is found in word cards. An envelope with his name written 
upon it should be provided for each child. Sheets of 
manila board may be ruled into space about /4~x.i% inches 
and cut on the lines. On the cards thus made should be 
placed the words of the reading lesson, on one side in print, 
on the other in script. An envelope should contain several 
copies of each word. 

CAT RUN BOY 



94 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

At first the children may arrange cards in columns upon 
their desks. Later new words may be added and the children 
taught to build them into sentences. 

Correlation of Writing with Reading. The first work in 
writing may begin at any time. In this, as in reading, the 
child's natural desire to write should be awakened and 
encouraged. Any child will respond to the suggestion 
that he would rather be like father or mother who can 
write a letter than like baby who only scribbles! 

The first writing lesson should be a whole word. Sup- 
pose for instance, that the teacher has chosen the word 
cat which is simple in its outlines and easy for beginners. 
Having written the word upon the board, she should trace 
it in the air having the class trace it with her. Then she 
should erase the word and see how many can trace it in the 
air. Not many will be able to do this the first time, but 
a second trial will give better results. Children who 
merely copy a word pay little attention to its form, but if 
they know that it is soon to be erased, they look at it with 
different eyes. These tracing exercises are a great help in 
fixing in mind the words of the reading lesson, and children 
who learn to write in this way are better spellers, and 
acquire a writing vocabulary much more rapidly than 
those who merely follow a set copy. 

Establishing Correct Habits. The teacher of primary 
reading must have a definite aim and purpose if she is 
to attain success. The first and highest aim is to establish 
correct habits. The most important habits are these: 
The habit of attention. 
The habit of wanting and working to know. 
These two habits are but the outward expression of the one 
great thing which the teacher of any subject can give her 
pupils — love of that subject. One does not have to court 



TEACHING BEGINNERS TO READ 



95 



the attention of a pupil who loves a study, for its pursuit is 
his pastime. 

Every child has a right to this love of reading and he 
will love to read if he reads well. There is really no excuse 
for poor reading. The only reason that we have it is that 
teachers are content to let beginners acquire the same 
sing song, unnatural manner that their older brothers and 
sisters had before them. Any primary teacher who is not 
willing to have this kind of reading, who adheres to a 
definite aim and purpose, need never have anything but 
good reading among the pupils who have been with her 
from the beginning. In order then to establish correct 
habits the teacher must have in mind the process of develop- 
ing Good Readers. The following outline offers a definite 
program for accomplishing this result. 

Good Readers: 

Thoughtful Readers — 
Attractive subject matter 
Silent reading 
Interpretative reading 
Thorough word drills 

Expressive Readers — 

Reading sentence before attempting to express 
Reading material possessing the emotional quality 
Dialogues 
Dramatization 

Fluent Readers — 

Familiarity with lesson 
Grouping of sentences 
Phrasing 
Sight reading 



96 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

Independent Readers — 
Phonics 
Spelling 
Drills 

Thoughtful Readers are those children who read not for 
the words but for the thought which the words contain. 

Expressive Readers are those children who can express 
the thought as they take it from the page. 

Fluent Readers are those children who can read without 
the objectionable halting and stumbling. 

Independent Readers are those children who are able to 
pronounce new, unfamiliar words without asking assist- 
ance. 

Thoughtful Readers. Success in developing good readers 
depends almost wholly upon a child's attitude toward his 
work. If he feels from the start that each sentence has a 
personal message to him, he will seek that messa.ge. If, on 
the contrary, he is merely seeking the ability to name the 
words in the lesson, he will name words. Hence the im- 
portance of having not only the first lessons but those which 
follow full of the brightness and play of childhood. At 
first, the task of teaching beginners to read may seem com- 
paratively easy because of the newness and charm of the 
first exercises. Experience has shown that the greatest 
difficulties arise from the second to the ninth week. This 
period is a true test of the teacher's skill and patience. A 
few dull tiresome lessons which have no appeal to childhood 
and the fascination which surrounded the beginning is gone. 
A few careless lessons in which new words are presented 
before the old ones are familiar and the child is bewildered 
and discouraged. Special exercises should be introduced 
to help overcome these difficulties. 



TEACHING BEGINNERS TO READ 



97 



Difficulties of Teaching Beginners — First Year 



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1 


2 


3 


> 


5 


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7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


l« 


13 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


"•' 


22 


23 


24 


2S 


26 


27 


2d 


29 


30 


31 


32 


33 


M 


35 


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A BCD represents the curve of difficulty in teaching reading the first year, according to 
experienced primary teachers. With line one indicating the period during which the work 
is easiest and line ten indicating the period during which the work is hardest for the child, 
the diagram shows that the greatest difficulty arises during weeks 2 to 9. 



Action Work. One of the greatest helps in getting the 
child through this critical period is action work. To start 
this work, a teacher may write upon the board the single 
word, Clap, telling the children that she will use this means 
of telling them what to do. Then she may write the word, 
Stop. After children have learned to follow these written 
commands they will be ready for others, such as, Run, Tap, 
Jump, Skip, Hop. Children may be taught to do these things 
lightly and quietly in a way that will not disturb others. 

Gradually names of the pupils may be added to these 
exercises; as, 

Run, John. Hop, Charles, hop/ 

Clap, Helen. Run and jump, Mary. 

Later, the teacher may provide herself with a basket 
of objects whose corresponding nouns are among the 
early words of the primer; for instance, a red ball, a blue 
ball, flowers and leaves, a doll, a top, or a book. 

Each child may act in turn as the teacher writes such 
directions; as, 

Get a ball. Get a blue ball. 

Get a red ball. Get a yellow flower. 



98 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

After performing the act a child may read his sentence from 
the board. 

As the vocabulary increases, the class will be able to 
read such sentences as: 

Give me a ball. 

Get the ball, Mary. 

Give it to Fan. 

Sing to the doll, Helen. 

Spin the top, Phil. 

Ned, give the rose to Helen. 

Close the door, Charles. 

John and Will may pass the pencils. 

Another type of lesson which makes a strong appeal to 
the interest is the riddle, of which the following are examples: 

I am thinking of something. 

It is brown. 

It has two brown eyes. 

It has four feet. 

It can run and jump. 

It can bark and play. 

What is it? 
or 

I have two eyes. 

I have four soft feet. 

I have a short tail. 

I have two long ears. 

I have gray fur. 

I like cabbage to eat. 

Who am I? 

Such lessons as these keep children breathless with eager 
interest to guess the puzzle and also help them to hold to 
one line of thought continued through several sentences 



TEACHING BEGINNERS TO READ 99 

instead of feeling satisfied to stop with one sentence, as is 
sometimes the tendency with beginners. 
f. Another type of lesson, which helps during the time that 
the vocabulary is quite limited, is the story which is partly 
told, partly written. For instance, the teacher may tell a 
story bringing in familiar words; as, 

Once I had a little doll. 
Her name was Alice. 
Her eyes were blue. 
Her hair was yellow. 

All but the words in italics are spoken. These being 
known to the children are not spoken, but are written upon 
the board as the story proceeds. 

One of the greatest helps in training children to be thought- 
ful readers is silent reading. This may be used from the 
first. A teacher may write upon the board such sentences as ; 

I like you. 
Do you like me? 
or 

I can run. 
Can you? 

She may look at the children without saying a word. Their 
faces will tell which ones have the thought. 
> As soon as the vocabulary permits, she may write a simple 
little lesson of five or six related sentences, having them, if 
possible, concealed behind a curtain. At the right time she 
may remove the curtain and give the children a smile or nod 
by which they may understand that this little lesson is now 
theirs to enjoy. She may point to each line as they read 
it silently and when they have finished, replace the curtain. 
Children love to feel that behind the curtain is a little treat 
just for them. 



ESSENTIALS OF READING 



Interpretative Reading. Discussion of the reading les- 
son should always form an important part of the recitation. 
If a child feels that the object of the recitation is the ability 
on the part of each child to read that lesson aloud, he will 
prepare his work with that object in view. If, however, 
he knows that the teacher is even more concerned with 
what the lines mean to him than with his ability to read 
them, his chief interest will be the thought which the lines 
contain. The ability to read aloud well is a most desirable 
accomplishment but the ability to read understandingly is 
a necessity to every educated individual. 

Word-getting should never be the end and aim of the 
reading lesson, yet a half-mastered vocabulary may be a 
serious detriment to thought-getting. 

Word drills and reviews should be constant and thor- 
ough, brisk and spirited. Through games, drills that 
might otherwise be drudgery may be converted into a 
happy playtime. 

The following suggestions may prove helpful: Write a 
list of words upon the board. 
Have the class read it in concert. 
Have the boys read it. 
Have the girls read it. 
Have individuals read it. or 

Draw a picture of a ladder. Write 
words upon its bars. See how many 
can climb the ladder (name the words). 
Sometimes play that there is a fire, 
and let children race up the ladder 
and down again. 

Have many words written upon the 
board. Let each child name and 
erase three. 




TEACHING BEGINNERS TO READ 101 

Have upon the board the picture .of a Brownie. Write 
a list of ten words. Each child that names the list cor- 
rectly scores one for the class. Each word missed scores 
one for the Brownie. 

Difficult Words. Some words are more difficult than 
others for children to remember. One who has never 
taught is apt to think that short words are easy and that 
long words are difficult. If children learned through 
spelling, this might be true; but as they learn by recog- 
nizing the form of a word and by associating that form with* 
the image which the word suggests, those words which 
present the most unusual appearance and suggest the most 
vivid pictures are easiest to learn. Hard words are those 
which do not call up any definite mental image. Ball, 
butterfly and run each suggests its own word picture, while 
such words as where, was and this are hard because no 
picture is suggested by them. Such words require special 
attention in word drills, and are best taught in relation to 
other words. To drill upon the word this, try this kind of 
exercise : 

This is my ball. 

It is red. 

This is your ball. 

It is yellow. 

This is John's ball. 

It is blue. 

Who will go to sleep? 

This boy. 

Who will wake up? 

This girl. 

Who will clap hands? 

This boy 



102 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

For where try: 

Where is John? 
He is at home. 
Where is Helen? 
She is at school. 
Where is Ned? 
He is playing ball. 

It is the game in this that appeals to children, and exer- 
cises should never be continued past the point of pleasing. 

Labeling is a device which aids in increasing and 
strengthening the vocabulary. Let a teacher bring into 
the school-room some object or picture of an object and 
hang upon it a card bearing its name. She need not do 
more than look wise and mysterious about it. If after a 
day or two she uses the word in the reading lesson, she will 
find that most of the children know it. 

Another help is the use of simple rhymes. One of these 
may be written upon the board and left without comment. 
The written story will arouse curiosity and the children 
will endeavor to work it out for themselves. After a day 
or two it may be read by the teacher and by several of the 
pupils and then erased. Thoughtful readers, then, are 
made through Attractive Subject Matter, Silent Reading, 
Interpretative Reading and Thorough Word Drills. 

Expressive Readers. One of the first difficulties with 
expression is likely to be with the troublesome little words 
a and the. This arises when these words are placed alone 
or in lists of words, when the correct pronunciation employs 
the long sound of the vowel. In a sentence, however, the 
vowel is obscure preceding a word beginning with a con- 
sonant. Since this rule could not be comprehended by 
beginners it is better to avoid pronouncing a and the without 



TEACHING BEGINNERS TO READ 103 

the words which follow them. The less attention we pay- 
to these words the less trouble they will make. 

A serious fault in expression, is the habit of calling one 
word at a time. The best way to avoid this is by never 
allowing a child to express a thought until he has it in his 
mind. He should be required to read each sentence silently 
before he reads it aloud. How do adults read with good 
expression? They look ahead and while their lips are 
saying one thing, their eyes are reading another and their 
minds adjusting the meaning and guiding their voices to 
the proper inflection. Think of expecting a complicated 
operation like that of beginners! They simply cannot 
perform it. There must be a halt somewhere, and unless 
we want it between the words, it had better come between 
the sentences. 

If children are to express a thought, the thought musi be 
worth expressing. Expression is but the natural giving out 
of the emotions which the words arouse, and if the lesson 
lacks the emotional quality the reading is dull and colorless. 
Such sentences as the following should be used frequently. 

Run! run! run, Fido! 
Get the ball! 
Now he has it! 
Qood Fido! Good dog! 



or, 



or, 



or, 



Poor little kitty! 
She is so hungry. 

No! No! Baby! 

You must not hurt kitty. 

Goodbye, Mother, 

I am going for a long, long walk. 



104 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

Sentences using contrast are an aid to expression, as; 
My ball is blue. 
Your ball is red. 
Helen's ball is not red. 
It is yellow, 
or, 

Father likes Jim. 

He gives him oats. 

Dan likes Jim. 

He gives him water. 

I like Jim. 

I give him hay. 

The Dialogue as an Aid to Expression. One of the best 
aids to expression is the dialogue. This form of lesson may 
be used from the first and is always strong in its appeal. A 
child will read better when he feels that he is impersonating 
some one than when he is merely stating a fact. Simple 
dialogues like the following are easily prepared: 

A. Guess what I have in my hand. 

B. Is it a book? 

A. No, it is not a book. 

B. Is it a doll? 

A. No, it is not a doll. 

B. Is it a ball? 

A. No, it is not a ball but it is round like a ball. 

B. Is it an apple? 

A. Yes, it is a red apple. 

Dramatization. Closely allied to the dialogue is the 
dramatization of familiar stories. Mother Goose is full of 
possibilities. Children love to repeat and to act Miss 
Muffet, Boy Blue, and Jack and Jill. Afterwards they will 
be doubly interested in lessons about their play. 



TEACHING BEGINNERS TO READ 105 

Fluency. As children advance they may gradually be 
led away from the habit of halting between sentences. One 
way of accomplishing this is by rereading the lesson till 
it is so familiar that it can be read without a halt anywhere. 
Another help is in the grouping of sentences. It is easier 
for a child to read eight sentences grouped in twos than 
eight sentences equal spaces apart. Another aid to fluency 
is the habit of phrasing. From the first there are certain 
sets of words which should be seen and read as one; for 
instance, such words as 

by and by into the house 

one by one worked and worked 

on the floor last Tuesday 

Sight Reading. Exercises in sight reading help greatly 
in the matter of fluency. These sentences or groups of 
sentences should be much simpler and easier than the 
regular reading lesson and may be written by the teacher 
upon the board or upon pieces of paper. 

Fluency, then, may be accomplished through the study of 
the lesson, grouping of sentences, phrasing, and sight reading. 

Independent Readers. The only means a child has of 
pronouncing an unfamiliar word is a knowledge of the 
sounds of the letters which compose the word. It is a 
source of the greatest satisfaction to both teacher and pupil 
when the pupil can work out new words for himself instead 
of depending upon the teacher. 

Phonics. The work in phonics may begin the first day 
of school, but since phonics is not reading, only an aid to 
reading, it is best taught at a time by itself. The phonic 
recitation may be a time of drudgery or a time of delight, 
according to the element of play which enters into it. 
Exercises should be brief and spirited. A small class can 



io6 



ESSENTIALS OF READING 



learn more in two ten-minute drills than in a drill lasting 
twenty minutes. 

The first step is the teaching of some of the consonant 
sounds. As has been explained, in order to fix the sound 
symbols in mind they must be associated with something 
known. There are two ways of doing this. One way is 
to compare the sound of each letter with some familiar 
sound as w to the sound of the wind, r to the growl of a dog, 
z to the hum of a bee, s to escaping steam. Another way 
is to associate the letter with some known word in which it 
occurs, preferably as the initial letter. When a word is used 
to teach a sound it is called a key word and it should be a 
word that is easily remembered, such as baby or jump. 
Such words as with or have do not make good key words. 

The following list of key words and sounds is merely 
suggestive and may be varied to suit conditions. 



}y sounds. 


By words. 


c, sound of choking. 


b, baby. 


f, cross cat. 


d, dog. 


g, frog. 


a, apple. 


h, panting dog. 


e, egg. 


m, cow. 


i, ink. 


r, growl of dog. 


o, ox. 


s, steam from engine. 


u, up. 


t, tick of watch. 


j, jump. 


v, hum of trolley wire. 


k, kitty. 


w, wind. 


1, little. 


z, hum of bee. 


n, no. 




q, quick. 




x, box. 




y, yes. 




p, pin, 



TEACHING BEGINNERS TO READ 107 

In presenting a first lesson in phonics, suppose the object 
to be the teaching of the sound of the letter t. The teacher 
should call attention to the tick of the clock, and have 
pupils listen to the sound. She should lead each one in 
turn to make the sound. Then she may print the letter t 
upon the board and tell the children, "This is the letter 
which stands for the clock sound." She should then write 
t many times having the class trace and sound it. The 
letter / with a clock face drawn beside it should be given a 
place in the room, and several times during the day the 
teacher should draw attention to it and have the children 
sound the letter. 

After two or three weeks the children will enjoy the 
following guessing game. Let someone start the game 
by thinking of some object in the room and by giving 
the sound of its initial letter; as d for desk, s for shoe. 
The others may try to guess the name of the object. 
The one who first succeeds in naming the right word 
has the privilege of naming a new one for the others to 
guess. 

When several sounds have been taught the teacher should 
provide herself with a set of cards each about 6 x 10 inches. 
Each letter with its corresponding key word or sound 
picture should be written or drawn upon the cards. These 
cards will prove a help in sight drills, and when not in use 
should be placed about the room where children may refer 
to them. Two consonants should also be blended together 
in such combinations as sp, fl, fr, st. As soon as a com- 
bination is learned it should be added to the cards for 
review. The vowels may be taught and blended one at 
a time with familiar consonants. 

When the children have learned such phonograms as ap, 
ad, at, they may be taught to build words from them as, 



io8 ESSENTIALS OF READING 



c — ap 


t — ap 


s — ad 


c — at 


s — ap 


b — ad 


gl — ad 


f — at 


m — ap 


h — ad 


h — at 


s — at 



Thus far the work has all been synthetic, but words should 
be analyzed as well. Children will soon see that the same 
ending gives the same sound. They learn to recognize end- 
ings such as, ell, igkt, ound, just as they do words, and lists 
of these should be written upon the board for rapid drill. 

Sometimes children are not inclined to make the effort 
required to use their knowledge of phonics, but the teacher 
should be firm in refusing to tell a word which the children are 
able to sound for themselves. On the other hand, if a word is 
hard to sound, as pigeons or said, it should be told promptly. 

After children are familiar with the sounds of the letters 
they are ready to learn the names. The teacher should 
begin to speak of letters by their names instead of by their 
sounds. As she writes words upon the board, she may spell 
them over as if to herself. After she has done this for a 
few days, the children will be able to name the letters with 
her. Later she should write and print the alphabet upon 
the board and, if desired, have the pupils repeat and sing it. 

Thus far in spelling children have memorized words 
through the visual and through the muscular sense. Now, 
they may use the auditory sense as well. In rapid drill 
they should spell words orally both in concert and in- 
dividually. There is but one aim in spelling and that is 
absolute accuracy. The teacher should keep a list of words 
and by frequent reviews satisfy herself that each child 
knows every word. Better fifty words learned well than 
five hundred which are only guessed at. As may be seen, 
it is through phonics and spelling that a child attains the 
desired independence, the last point in our aim. 



TEACHING BEGINNERS TO READ 109 

Value of a Right Start. Too much cannot be said of the 
value of a right start or the importance of the first few 
weeks of school; for in that time the child's attitude toward 
his work is established, and that attitude largely deter- 
mines the quality not only of his school life but of his 
subsequent career. There are, of course, children in whom 
a faulty beginning is corrected later but each month that 
that correction is deferred makes the correction corre- 
spondingly harder to accomplish. Reading with apprecia- 
tion is a fine art. Every child who learns to read has a 
right to acquire this art and it will be his when the teacher 
is faithful in her daily preparation, steadfast in her aim, and 
careful to keep the bright and attractive side of the subject 
ever before him. 

OUTLINE OF CHAPTER IX 

TEACHING BEGINNERS TO READ 

Primary methods. 
Alphabet method. 
Phonic method. 
Word method. 
Sentence method. 
Story method. 
Methods compared. 
Sources of interest. 
First steps with the beginner. 
Preparing to use the primer. 
Correlation of writing with reading. 
Establishing correct habits. 
Good readers. 

Thoughtful readers. 

Attractive subject matter. 
Silent reading. 
Interpretative reading. 
Thorough word drills. 



no ESSENTIALS OF READING 

Expressive readers. 

Reading sentence before attempting to express. 

Reading material possessing the emotional quality. 

Dialogues. 

Dramatization. 

Fluent readers. 

Familiarity with lesson. ] 

Grouping of sentences. 

Phrasing. 

Sight reading. 
Independent readers. 

Phonics. 

Spelling. 

Drills. 
Value of a right start. 

FOR REVIEW AND SUGGESTION 

i. Name and explain each of the fundamental methods of teaching 
beginners to read. 

2. Give a brief comparison of the different methods. 

3. Discuss the two sources of interest in reading. 

4. Explain fully, "Reading does not have to be made interesting. 
It is interesting." 

5. What are the two fundamental conditions under which the 
child must learn to read? 

6. Give a simple plan for teaching beginners the first steps in 
reading. 

7. Just what work should be done to prepare for the use of the 
primer? 

8. Explain just how writing may be correlated with reading. 

9. Discuss fully each of the two habits essential for good readers. 
10. What four things are necessary in order to develop good readers? 
n. Just how may pupils be made thoughtful readers? 

12. What are the best means of developing correct expression? 

13. What is necessary in order to make children fluent readers? 

14. How may children be made independent readers? 

15. What is the value of getting a right start in reading? 



CHAPTER X 
DRAMATIZATION 

An appeal to dramatic instinct leads children to a freer 
use of the imagination. The formality of the school room 
tends to repress that natural activity of the imagination 
that is so characteristic of children at play. While there 
must be a certain amount of restraint in an organization 
there should be a counteracting influence at times in con- 
nection with reading, especially in the primary classes, or 
the pupil will lose the spirit in the exactions of the effort 
to secure the form. There are many selections where a 
part or all of the story can be easily dramatized and given 
in dialogue. Generally this will follow the study of the 
exercise in the regular way. Sometimes the change can be 
introduced for a part of the time in the regular development 
of the lesson, when the pupils are having difficulty in ex- 
pressing the meaning because they do not have the point of 
view. 

The children enjoy acting parts. Especially is this true 
when it includes the novelty of representing animals and 
inanimate objects that are endowed with the power of 
speech. Let one pupil represent the cat, and another the 
girl, and clearness of -meaning with the attendant natural- 
ness of expression will follow from this simple dialogue: 

Girl. Pussy-cat, pussy-cat, 

Where have you been? 
Cat. I've been to London 

To look at the queen. 

Ill 



ii2 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

Girl. Pussy-cat, pussy-cat, 
What did you there? 
Cat. I frightened a little mouse 
Under the chair. 

LITTLE BOY BLUE 
To dramatize "Little Boy Blue," have a pupil lie down 
and go to sleep on a recitation seat. It does not require 
many stage accessories to satisfy little children. Then two 
pupils enter, searching for some one. 

First. Little boy blue, come blow your horn, 

The sheep's in the meadow, the cow's in the corn. 

Second. Where's the boy that looks after the sheep? 

First. {pointing to him). He's under the haycock, fast asleep. 

Second. Will you wake him? 

First. No, not I — 

For if I do, he'll be sure to cry. 

This arrangement is better than the prose paraphrase 
sometimes used as it preserves the literary form of the 
original. 

LADY MOON 
Child. Lady Moon, Lady Moon, where are you roving? 
Moon. Over the sea. 

Child. Lady Moon, Lady Moon, whom are you loving? 
Moon. All that love me. 

Child. Are you not tired with rolling and never 
Resting to sleep? 
Why look so pale and so sad, as forever 
Wishing to weep? 
Moon. Ask me not this, little child, if you love me; 
You are too bold. 
I must obey my dear Father above me, 
And do as I'm told. 



DRAMATIZATION 



"3 



Child. Lady Moon, Lady Moon, where are you roving? 

Moon. Over the sea. 

Child. Lady Moon, Lady Moon, whom are you loving? 

Moon. All that love me. 

THE FLOWER GIRL 

Boy. Little girl, little girl, where have you been? 

Girl. Gathering roses to give to the Queen. 

Boy. Little girl, little girl, what gave she you? 

Girl. She gave me a diamond as big as my shoe. 

THE MILK-MAID 

Boy. Little maid, pretty maid, whither goest thou? . 

Girl. Down in the forest to milk my cow. 

Boy. Shall I go with you? 

Girl. No, not now, 

When I send for thee, then come thou. 

WILLY BOY 

Girl. Willy boy, Willy boy, where are you going? 

I will go with you, if that I may. 
Boy. I'm going to the meadow to see them a-mowing. 

I'm going to help them to make the hay. 

THE NEIGHBORS 

First. What's the news of the day, 

Good neighbor, I pray? 
Second. They say the balloon 

Is gone up to the moon. 



Sometimes poems can be used with slight changes that 
do not destroy the form. "The Three Kittens" is one of 
this type. 



H4 



ESSENTIALS OF READING 



THE THREE KITTENS 

Kittens (crying). 

O mother dear 

We very much fear 

Our mittens we have lost. 

Mother. What, lost your mittens! 
You naughty kittens ! 
Then you shall have no pie. 

Kittens. Mee-ow, mee-ow, mee-ow. 

Mother. No, you shall have no pie. 

Kittens. Mee-ow, mee-ow, mee-ow. 

Kittens. O mother dear, 

See here, see here. 

Our mittens we have found. 

Mother. Oh, found your mittens 

You darling kittens, 

Then you may have some pie. 
Kittens. Purr-r, purr-r, purr-r, 

Oh, let us have some pie. 

Purr-r, purr-r, purr-r. 

Kittens. O mother dear, 
We greatly fear 
Our mittens we have soiled. 

Mother. What, soiled your mittens! 
You naughty kittens ! 
To wash them you must try. 

Kittens. Mee-ow, mee-ow, mee-ow. 

Mother. Yes, to wash them you must try. 

Kittens. Mee-ow, mee-ow, mee-ow. 

Kittens. O mother dear, 

Do you not hear, 

Our mittens we have washed. 
Mother. Ah, washed your mittens! 

You are good kittens. 

But I smell a rat close by! 



DRAMATIZATION 



115 



Kittens. Hush, hush! mee-ow, mee-ow! 
We smell a rat close by. 
Mee-ow, mee-ow, mee-ow. 

BLACK SHEEP 

Boy. Bah, bah, black sheep, 

Have you any wool? 
Sheep. Yes, sir; yes, sir; 

Three bags full : 

One for my master, 

And one for my dame, 

And one for the little boy 

Who lives in the lane. 

THE THREE CROWS 

First. What do you think I saw this morn? 

Second. I know, I know; it was some corn. 

First. How many crows will go with me? 

Second. Be quiet, friends, a man I see. 

First. Caw, caw! Caw, caw, he has a gun! 

Third. Now let's be off; fly, every one. 

Often monologue is quite effective. There are many- 
poems that can be used in this way. There must always 
be two or more acting, though but one speaks. 



Speaker. Mary, Mary, quite contrary, 

How does your garden grow? 
With cockle-shells and silver bells 
And pretty maids all in a row. 

THE STORY 

I'll tell you a story 
About Jack a Nory, — 
And now my story's begun, 
I'll tell you another 
About his brother, — 
And now my story is done. 



n6 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

THE BEGGARS 

Hark, hark, 

The dogs do bark, 

The beggars are coming to town; 
Some in tags, 
Some in rags, 

And some in velvet gowns. 

No change should be made that alters materially the 
form of a poem. The form is an inseparable part of the 
poem. The rhythm and the rhyme are as important ele- 
ments as are the words. The presentation of the char- 
acters of the Mother Goose melodies in prose dialogue is 
neither pleasing nor edifying. They should not be spoiled 
in this manner. 

Monologue poems of length can be assigned to several 
pupils. Among those well adapted are "I Love Little 
Pussy," by Jane Taylor; "The North Wind doth Blow;" 
"If I were a Sunbeam," by Lucy Larcom; "Don't Kill the 
Birds," by Thomas Colesworthy ; "The Fairies," by William 
Allingham; "Suppose", by Phoebe Cary. 

Prose can be adapted with more freedom. The form is 
not so closely associated with the meaning. Any change 
that preserves the spirit is proper. The story of "Little 
Red Hen" is well suited to dramatic purposes. The 
characters are the Little Red Hen, the Mouse, the Pig, the 
Cat, and the Chicks. 

Scene i. 

Little Red Hen. Here is a grain of wheat. Who will plant it? Will 

you, little mouse? 
Mouse. No, indeed, not I. 

Little Red Hen. Will you plant it, pig? 
Pig. I will not. 



DRAMATIZATION 117 



Little Red Hen. Will you plant it, cat? 

Cat. No, I will not. 

Little Red Hen. Well, I will plant it myself, then. 

Scene n. 

Little Red Hen. My wheat is grown. Who will cut it? 

Mouse. Not I. I wish to play. 

Little Red Hen. Will you cut it, pig? 

Pig. I will not. 

Little Red Hen. Will you cut it, cat? 

Cat. No, I am too sleepy. 

Little Red Hen. Well, I will cut it myself, then. 

Scene ni. 
(Develop the threshing similarly.) 

Scene iv. 
(Develop the grinding similarly.) 

Scene v. 
(Develop the baking similarly.) 

Scene vt. 
Little Red Hen. See my fine loaf of bread. Who will help me eat it? 
Mouse. I will. 

Pig. I will. 

Cat. I will. 

Little Red Hen. No, you will not. The chicks and I will eat it. 
Come, chick! chick! chick! 

Among other prose selections well adapted to dramatiza- 
tion are "The Three Goats and the Turnip Patch," "The 
Boy and the Wolf," "Silver Locks," "Chicken Little," 



n8 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

"The Ant and the Grasshopper," "The Field Mouse and 
the Town Mouse." These are merely suggestive. The 
teacher will find an abundance of material for this purpose 
by studying the selections in the best primary readers. 



OUTLINE OF CHAPTER X 

DRAMATIZATION 
Appeal to dramatic instinct. 
Formality represses. 
Dramatic work relieves restraint. 
Selections lending themselves to dramatization. 

Children enjoy acting. 
Pussy-cat. 
Little Boy Blue. 
Lady Moon. 
The Flower Girl. 
The Milk-Maid. 
Willy Boy. 
The Neighbors. 

Poems used with slight changes. 
The Three Kittens. 
Black Sheep. 
The Three Crows. 

Monologue. 

Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary. 
The Story. 
The Beggars. 
Other Selections. 

Prose Adaptations. 
Little Red Hen. 
Other Prose Selections. 



DRAMATIZATION 119 

FOR REVIEW AND SUGGESTION 

1 . What is the value of dramatization? 

2. What parts do children most enjoy acting? 

3. Give suggestions for dramatizing "Little Boy Blue." 

4. What cautions should be observed in dramatizing selections? 

5. How may monologue be used! 

6. Tell how you would have children act any one of the poems 
suggested. 

7. How would you have children act any one of the prose selections 
mentioned? 



CHAPTER XI 

THE DIVISION OF A READING RECITATION AND 
ASSIGNMENT OF THE LESSON 

Division of a reading recitation. The time allotted to 
the recitation in reading should be carefully apportioned to 
the different operations of a reading recitation. These oper- 
ations are four in number: ist. — The recitation proper, 
consisting of hearing the pupils read, questioning them on 
the thought, and interpreting what needs interpretation. 
2nd. — Drilling in articulation. 3rd. — -The assignment of the 
new lesson. 4th. — Supplementary reading. 

The time apportioned to each operation. No universal 
division of time can be recommended. At one time a teacher 
may find it necessary to give more than usual attention to 
exercise in articulation. At another time she may find it best 
to devote an unusually long time to questions on the thought, 
thereby shortening the time for drill in articulation. Again, 
a teacher may find the lesson she expects to assign contains 
such a number of new words and strange ideas that she must 
take half of the recitation period to make the assignment. 
It may be that the lesson to be assigned contains no new 
word or ideas. Then the amount of time necessary for this 
operation becomes zero Under average conditions a thirty 
minute reading recitation should be divided into about 
seventeen minutes for oral reading, questioning, and inter- 
preting, three minutes for exercise in articulation, five minutes 
for the assignment of the new lesson, and five minutes for 
supplementary reading. Very often this last time can be 

120 



ASSIGNMENT OF LESSON 121 

saved by having this reading done in the period of some other 
class, or in the opening exercises. 

The assignment of the reading lesson. It is economy of 
time to make a careful assignment of the new lesson. A 
minute at this operation may save misunderstandings that 
would require many minutes to detect and clear up. Four 
things must be considered in assigning a reading lesson: 
first, the selection of the lesson; second, the length of the 
lesson; third, the development of the new words and ideas; 
fourth, the exposition of the work to be done by the pupils 
in the process of preparation. 

The selection of a lesson. The teacher should select the 
lesson before she comes to her class. She should bear in 
mind that the lesson should be of a nature suited: first, to 
the class; and, second, to the purpose of the teacher. It 
should be of such a nature as to be likely to interest the pupils. 
It should be of such difficulty as will test their power, but 
not over- tax it. 

The purpose of the teacher. The teacher may see that 
her pupils lack facility in the reading of material in which 
there are no new words. She should select lessons of this 
nature until the pupils gain the desired facility. Then her 
purpose may change. She may wish them to increase their 
vocabulary. The lesson selected will then contain many 
new words. It may be that she finds the pupils unable to 
read verse well. She consequently assigns those lessons 
which are in verse. She may find her pupils much inter- 
ested in some poem by Longfellow. It would be well for her 
to assign another lesson from the same author. If she wishes 
to familiarize the class with types and effects, she must 
assign lessons suitable for that work. If she wishes to cul- 
tivate the power of gleaning thought by silent reading, she 
should select lessons of more than ordinary difficulty, and 



122 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

should devote the recitation period to questions on the thought. 
Let her realize that order in the book is a consideration not to 
be compared with the reasons mentioned above. 

The length of the lesson. This also must be suited to 
the pupils, and to the purpose of the teacher. It may vary 
from a few lines in work in types or effects, to pages in gain- 
ing facility in recognizing old words. It must always be 
the subject of careful judgment. 

The development of new words and ideas. A certain 
lovable and scholarly professor of Greek in a large college 
held to the opinion that he could judge a student's knowledge 
of a page of Thucydides by the way the student pronounced 
the text. His classes could have given him much information 
as to the fallacy of his belief, had it been to their advantage 
to speak. A small boy may pronounce very glibly words and 
sentences whose meaning to him is not at all what it is to the 
teacher. A schoolboy insisted that a dirty tramp ran out 
from under the bridge and caught Ichabod Crane by the 
ear. He cited as proof the exact words of Irving, "Just at 
this moment a plashy tramp caught the sensitive ear of 
Ichabod." Another original thinker spoke of Annie Laurie's 
donkey, and when questioned as to his sources of information 
concerning the beast, triumphantly pointed to "Maxw el- 
ton's braes are bonnie." The boy would doubtless have 
read the line with good expression, but with a mental picture 
somewhat different from that of the teacher. The mistake 
would not have occurred had the teacher in assigning the 
lesson spoken of the meaning of the word " braes." 

The dictionary will not do the work of the teacher. 
Nevertheless the dictionary is very helpful. Each child 
above the fourth grade should be supplied with one, and 
should be trained to use it. The dictionary, however, gives 
the mere skeleton of a meaning. The teacher must make the 



ASSIGNMENT OF LESSON 123 

new idea live in the mind of the pupil. A certain common 
school dictionary defines lobster as "an edible marine crus- 
tacean." What an assistance to a ten-year-old boy! 

The teacher must see to it that the pupils have the 
ideas necessary to enable them, to understand the new 
lesson. If possible, she should show them a lobster. If 
that is impossible, then a picture of a lobster, speaking of 
its color, appearance, and use. It is not necessary to make 
a detailed study of the thing, inquiring into its anatomy, 
habits of life, methods of catching it, etc . Such a study 
would be interesting, and possibly profitable, for nature study 
or for the purposes of composition work; but not much read- 
ing could be done if every object mentioned were studied in 
such a fashion. The important thing is that the child have 
a correct, though maybe not detailed, conception of the objects 
mentioned in the new lesson. It is a good plan to review the 
new and difficult words at the opening of the recitation of 
the lesson. 

An example. In the lesson "The Lark and the Farmer " 
(Chapter Three), the teacher will find it necessary to explain 
these words and probably others: Lark, field, neighbors, 
frightened, reapers, hurry, kinsfolk, harvest, notice, whet, 
scythes. It would be well to show the children a scythe, or 
a picture of a scythe, and to call up to their recollection 
some larks' nest. In " The Village Blacksmith " (Chapter Two), 
the teacher must see that the children have ideas of these: 
Spreading chestnut tree, sinewy, brawny, crisp, tan, bellows, 
sledge, sexton, village, forge, smithy, threshing floor, choir, 
anvil, repose. 

Many words do more than designate certain objects, 
attributes, or actions. These words not only express the 
ideas that they are expected to convey, but they also excite 
the feelings to greater or less degree. Ea*ch of the words 



124 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

storm, ocean, tornado, mouse, causes in the mind of the hearer 
a slight degree of the same emotion that would be caused 
by the presence of the object itself. If the hearer has seen 
the object, the effect is of course much greater than other- 
wise. The scenes in his experience rise again in his mind. 
The emotional effect of the word is great in just the propor- 
tion in which the memory of his experience is vivid. If the 
word indicates something not in one's experience, it may 
still rouse the emotion through the imagination. Such a 
word to most people is the word Arctic. The word sets up 
in the mind a mental image of the frozen North, and a feel- 
ing of fear and dread is aroused. One who does not have 
this feeling cannot appreciate Whittier's lines, 

The wolf beneath the Arctic moon, 

Has listened to that startling rune. 

Our work in reading fails of one great end if it does not 
help our pupils to understand and to appreciate literature. 
It therefore becomes the duty of the teacher to increase the 
emotional value of words to pupils. 

In assigning a lesson the teacher should so use the 
child's experience and imagination as to enable the 
poetic words and phrases to touch his emotions. She 
should cause the pupil to tell the experiences that the word 
brings into his mind, when it was, where it was, etc. Such 
an operation increases the facility of the action of the word 
on the feelings, the very end we desire to gain. This exer- 
cise should not be confined to the assignment of the lesson. 
It should be part of the assigned work. It should continue 
until all such words and phrases as misty light, sea, sea of dew, 
flaming forge, measured beat, dove, sting, Venice, touch the 
emotional nature of the child. 

Assigned work. The assignment of the lesson is of 
course incomplete unless specific directions are given to the 



ASSIGNMENT OF LESSON 125 

pupils as to the work to be done in preparation for the next 
recitation. One reason why we have not had the results in 
reading that we have had in other branches is that the assign- 
ment of work has not been so definite. A pupil knows when 
he has prepared his arithmetic lesson, and he does not hope 
to conceal his failure when he has not prepared it. 

The assignment in reading, "Take the next two pages, and 
study them carefully," is likely to get the scanty considera- 
tion that it deserves. The assignment should be in the form 
of detailed directions telling what to do, or questions to be 
answered either orally or in writing. The questions may 
be about words, meanings, types, effects, or any other sub- 
ject connected with the selection. The directions may include 
the looking up of meanings, the making of lists of words; 
for instance, a list containing all the words in the lesson that 
recall agreeable experiences, a list of all the words that are 
hard to spell, or a list of all the words whose meaning is not 
clear to the pupil. It is usually found best to put the assign- 
ment on the blackboard. 

Model assignment for "The Lark and the Farmer." 
Where did the Lark build the nest? How many young 
Larks were there? In what danger were they? What 
time of the year was this? How did the Mother Lark feel 
as she flew away? Why was not the old Lark frightened 
on the first two days ? What kind of a man was the farmer ? 
Make a list of words hard to spell. 

Model assignment for "The Village Blacksmith." Read 
it through three times. What is a smithy? A bellows? An 
anvil? Did you ever see a flaming forge? When? What 
tree does "spreading chestnut tree" make you think of? 
What kind of a man was the blacksmith? Copy the first 
stanza and mark the groups. 

At least five minutes of each day should be spent in 



126 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

oral supplementary reading. The children should also 
be supplied with an abundance of interesting easy read- 
ing for silent reading. In most schools this work is limited 
by financial conditions. The oral supplementary reading, 
however, requires but little expense. Two or three books, 
a current events paper, or the Sunday school papers are all 
that is absolutely necessary. But one book or paper of a kind 
is needed; indeed, it is better to have but one. The work is 
individual. The pupil is given the book a day or two in 
advance. He is told what selection or part of a selection 
he is to read. He studies it over, probably at home, usually 
with some help from parents or teacher. He knows that 
all depend on him for the understanding of the selection. 
He is put into the right mental attitude. (See Mental Atti- 
tude.) When the time comes, he walks to the front of the 
room, faces the pupils and reads. The use of the reading 
period alone limits this work to one or two pupils a day. 
The geography period can be used also in reading from 
such books as "Around the World," Carpenter's "Geo- 
graphical Readers," "The World and Its People," the 
"Youth's Companion Series of Geographical Readings." 
The same thing can be done in the history class. This 
reading, instead of injuring the work in geography and 
history, actually strengthens it. The opening exercises can 
include some reading, possibly in the nature of current events 
or nature study. 

The pupils of a room can be divided into groups for 
the purpose of giving greater opportunity for individual 
oral reading. Two or three times a week twenty or thirty 
minutes can be taken. At the signal the pupils gather in 
groups in the assigned parts of the room. Let us describe 
such an exercise. Group A, in the northeast corner of the 
room, are seated on the recitation seat and two of the front 



ASSIGNMENT OF LESSON 127 

seats. There are ten pupils in this group. To-day five of 
them will read about five minutes each from Gould's "Mother 
Nature's Children." In the northwest corner by the organ 
are gathered eight children. They are reading "Five Little 
Peppers." They are interested. The hum of the other 
groups disturbs them not at all. The teacher passing from 
one group to another as she sees fit, does not find it necessary 
to withdraw any child from this group on account of mis- 
behavior. That group just back of the center of the room, 
the pupils sitting two in a seat, is reading Coffin's "Drum- 
beat of the Nation," while that group in the extreme rear of 
the room is reading "Viking Tales." By such a plan, each 
pupil receives four times as much practice in oral reading 
as he otherwise would receive. Just a caution or two. The 
books or selections must be interesting and easy. The 
periods must be frequent enough to maintain interest. The 
teacher must watch order carefully, persistently, and unob- 
trusively. 

An alternating program can be used with advantage. 
Let one day of the week be set apart for the regular reading 
exercises, using the standard material of the grade. One 
day can be used for sight reading, the study time to be spent 
in composition, or drawing, or both, as suggested in the 
chapter on the Classification of Material. One day can be 
used for the study of difficult material, with class discussion 
of the contents and meaning, and with the oral reading of 
such passages as may seem best. One day can be used for 
individual reading, when two or more pupils read lessons 
which they alone have studied, or when they recite memo- 
rized selections or tell stories. One day can be used for 
the study of longer selections of minor value, to be~given in 
substance only. This program affords variety and brings to 
the pupils in turn each motive that can be used to increase 



128 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

the interest or stimulate the effort in reading, both silent 
and oral. 



OUTLINE OF CHAPTER XI 

DIVISION OF A READING RECITATION AND 
ASSIGNMENT OF LESSON 
Division. 

Time apportioned to each division. 
Selection of lesson. 

Suited to purpose of teacher. 

Suited to pupils. 
Length of lesson. 

Suited to purpose and pupils. 
Development of new words and ideas. 

Value of the dictionary. 

The teacher's duty. 

Illustrative lesson. 
Word content. 

Emotional words. 

The teacher's duty. 
Assigned work. 

Model assignment. 

Time and character of the supplementary reading. 

Grouping pupils for oral supplementary reading. 

Alternating program. 

FOR REVIEW AND SUGGESTION 
i. What points should be covered in a recitation in reading? 

2. When should articulation drill be given? 

3. How much can we omit the testing to find out if the directions 
have been followed? 

4. What would be the result if this part of the recitation were 
habitually slighted ? 

5. Why not combine articulation drill and oral reading? 

6. How would you divide a twenty-minute recitation period? 

7. How can supplementary reading be done in other classes? 

8. Of what importance is the assignment of the lesson? 

9. What points should be covered in the assignment of the lesson ? 



ASSIGNMENT OF LESSON 129 

10. What proportion of the children should be supplied with 
dictionaries? 

11. Can less than the right number be used to advantage? How? 

12. What is the best dictionary for each grade? 

13. Can a pupil use a word correctly in a sentence and be ignorant of 
its meaning? 

14. Can a pupil give a correct definition of a word and still be 
ignorant of its meaning ? 

15. What function in literature do words have beyond designating 
the actions, objects and attributes? 

26. What kind of words can be called experiential words? 

17. How can the child's responsiveness to emotional words be 
increased ? 

18. Of what value is supplementary reading? 

19. How many supplementary readers of the same kind should the 
teacher have ? 

20. How can there be supplementary reading without supple- 
mentary readers? 

21. What is the element gained in supplementary reading that is 
missed in ordinary reading ? 



CHAPTER XII 

CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIAL 
Most reading books contain four distinct kinds of 
material which should be separated and used by the 
teacher to serve the ends for which they are best 
adapted. Each is valuable in its place. All are necessary 
to a well-balanced course of instruction in reading. If they 
are not found in the texts used by the class, they should be 
supplied from other sources. The fault so often existing 
is due to the effort of the teacher to use all classes of material 
in the same way. 

The first class consists of the selections that are well 
suited to the pupils in degree of difficulty and that are 
intrinsically worthy to be studied thoroughly. These 
should constitute the greater part of the reading book and 
the presence of a good proportion of this class of material is 
the distinguishing mark of a good standard reader. 

In order to be suited in degree of difficulty, the subject-mat- 
ter should be within the understanding and experience 
of those who are to read it, and the language should be within 
or but slightly beyond the vocabulary of the class. This kind 
of material is primarily for oral reading, and it should not 
contain too many difficulties, otherwise it will lead to dis- 
couragement. There should be but few unfamiliar words, 
and these should be explained and pronounced before the 
recitation begins, or before the paragraph is read aloud, so 
that the pupil will be able to use them unconsciously in giving 
expression to the thought. The presence of a single formi- 
dable word in a sentence will draw to it the thought of the timid 

130 



CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIAL 131 

reader, and will conceal the meaning of the sentence. The 
pupil cannot consciously do two things at the same time. 
There will not be good oral reading unless the mechanical 
difficulties have been reduced to such a minimum that they 
do not come into consciousness. The pupil should be trained 
to know when the sentence is within his power, and should 
not attempt to read it until it is. He should ask questions 
and not attempt the pronunciation of unfamiliar words until he 
is sure of his grasp, and then should give the sentences with 
the expression of the thought as the end of his effort. A few 
sentences read in this way are of more value than many pages 
that have been merely pronounced. It is better still to have 
the selection so well suited to the ability of the class that a 
reasonable amount of effort will enable the pupils to get the 
thought with ease and express it with accuracy. It will then 
be read with pleasure. Reading should be pleasurable. 
It will be generally, if the material is kept within the interest 
and the difficulties within the increasing power of the pupil. 
The taste can be regulated and the power can be increased 
but it can be done only by starting where the pupil is and by 
increasing the distance by so small intervals that there is no 
time a severing of the connection. 

To be intrinsically worthy of being studied thor- 
oughly, the subject matter should be such as will interest 
the class. It must be attractive. Without this element 
there will not be that spontaneous mental activity that is 
essential to the most valuable form of attention. It need 
not appeal to the adult mind, nor to more mature children, 
but it must attract the child who is to study it. It is a serious 
error to suppose that everything good and attractive will 
interest all ages and all conditions. Even more than adults, 
children demand something new and interesting. They 
insist upon a fair return. The effort will be made gladly 



132 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

and, for a short time, intensely, provided they realize a product 
that repays in satisfaction or pleasure. But it is not suffi- 
cient that the subject matter be attractive. The most inju- 
rious form of literature is that which has this sole merit. 
Reading matter which is to be studied carefully should be of 
a nature that will bring to the reader a positive growth mor- 
ally or intellectually. It should deal with the beautiful and 
the noble or with related facts that are of deep concern. The 
mind of the child should be caused to dwell upon the 
acts and lives of those who evince a beautiful spirit or a char- 
acter of worth. The opposites of these should be little in 
evidence in the reading matter of the young. When present, 
they should appear merely as a foil for the more valuable 
qualities. This does not mean that every trait of character 
must be labeled, and that the selection should close with the 
once familiar, "Haec fabula docet." 

Generally there will be the identification of the type of 
character, and the meaning of the story will sink into the 
consciousness of the pupil, if the selection has been well read. 
There should be, however, exercises that will enable the pupil 
to recognize the types of character readily when presented 
through language; and to identify those qualities that he 
recognizes unconsciously in the concrete. Also, there should 
be frequent attempts to give wording to the meaning of a 
selection as a whole. An important end of all education 
is character building, and there is no medium more favor- 
able for this than the subject of reading. It is through the 
reading-matter of the first and second classes, as suggested 
in this chapter, that most of this character training will be 
effected; so this should be the subject of the most serious 
consideration on the part of teachers and parents. 

The second class consists of the few selections that 
will bear reading again and again. They are the highest 



CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIAL L33 

type of literature suited to the age and development of the 
pupil. They are the selections that grow upon the pupil 
with each hearing or perusal. The better they are known, 
the more they are enjoyed. They are the ones that pupils 
call for repeatedly when given a choice. They should be 
read as often as the interest will warrant. The pupils should 
be encouraged to tell them to the class as stories. They should 
be dramatized and presented in this form whenever they are 
suited to such treatment, thus causing them to enter the 
experience of the child through appeal to his dramatic in- 
stincts. After their meaning is well developed many of them, 
especially the poems, should be memorized as standards of 
literary form and as types expressing feelings and emotions 
common to all. 

The third class of literature is that which should not 
have close study, but which will repay being read once 
for general information or because of some special feature 
of the selection. This corresponds to the great mass of reading 
matter that will come to the eye of the pupil throughout life 
and some intelligent direction in this connection is of the 
utmost value. Much time is wasted because pupils do not 
learn to discriminate in values, but give to unimportant mat- 
ters the same time and effort that is required for subjects of 
serious concern. It is as important that they learn how to 
obtain easily and quickly the substance of materials of minor 
value, as that they be able to master the contents of more 
worthy selections. The habits formed in school should be 
such as are valuable later in life. Pupils should learn to 
scan a page rapidly, obtaining a correct impression of the 
whole, at the same time having the ability to give discriminative 
attention to the important parts. Much material should be 
studied by giving the class a limited time to read a definite 
part of a selection, and then calling for a statement of what 



134 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

has been read. Pupils should be required to give the sub- 
stance of the passage, the use of the exact language not being 
encouraged. The class criticism should be directed to show- 
ing wherein the pupil has obtained quickly and stated briefly 
the substance, or wherein he has failed in the subordination 
of parts. The effort should be to reduce the time necessary 
for accomplishing the end. This power acquired in school 
will serve the pupils well by enabling them to become widely- 
read, well-informed men and women, keeping in touch with 
the press and with current literature without feeling it a bur- 
den, after reaching the busy years of active life. It will spare 
them the laborious word-by-word reading of matter of minor 
importance, and yet will make them sure that they have not 
failed to see all that is of real concern. 

Mr. Frank McMurry is authority for the statement that 
school children, even in the best schools, do not possess initia- 
tive in study. He conducted a series of experiments in the 
subject of geography. He found that the pupils seemed to 
lack a desire to go ahead for their own purposes and on their 
own responsibilities. They depend on the teacher. They 
refer to maps when told to do so, look up words when directed. 
When not directed to do anything, they do nothing. His 
conclusion is verified by the investigations of others. This 
condition is true in the subject of reading, also. We find 
pupils in their silent readings stumbling over a string of words, 
with no desire to discover the unperceived thought, and with 
little knowledge of how to discover it, should they so desire. 

It becomes the duty of the teacher to train the pupils how 
to study. Her opportunity to do this is at the recitation time. 
Hence some of these periods should be called study periods and 
should be given up to studying with the children with the hope 
that this study may increase their power to study alone. The 
good teacher is one who trains the pupils to do without her. 



CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIAL 13S 

The books will be kept open, the teacher will have a para- 
graph read as a unit, then sentence by sentence. She will 
ask many questions; like, "Should we stop here for thought 
and discussion?" "Is this thought important?" "What 
is the principal thought in this paragraph?" "What is this 
paragraph about ? " "What do we know now that we did 
not know an hour ago?" "Are there any words here whose 
meanings are not clear to us?" She can go farther than this. 
She can have the pupils make outlines of the material studied. 
This is an exercise in deciding upon the relative importance of 
points. Two things in which the teacher should give training 
are: first, the grouping of related ideas; second, the judging 
of the comparative importance of different ideas. This results 
in the pupil having a definite notion of the state of his own 
knowledge. He makes a conscious judgment of his attain- 
ment. He knows when he has come to what Miss Arnold has 
called the "don't know line." He can say to himself, "I 
know this," "I understand that." He is impelled, to say 
also to himself, "This next thing I do noi. understand. I will 
now devote myself to the mastery of it." Such a condition 
is most favorable to mental growth and thought glean- 
ing. This training can be done in what has been called the 
study-recitation. If followed up, it will increase in a remark- 
able degree the initiative and power of the pupils. 

The fourth class of material consists of that, which is 
too difficult for ordinary class use. Often it contains 
mechanical difficulties that discourage the class. There may 
be too many new words. The presence of these is a barrier 
to the thought. Even when the thought is reached clearly, 
the fact that the words have not been pronounced often 
enough to be uttered unconsciously, causes the reader to hes- 
itate in giving the passage orally. The overcoming of the 
mechanical difficulties generally detracts from the pleasure 



136 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

of the pupil's effort. Frequently the order of words and the 
arrangement of clauses are so involved that the pupils find 
it hard to understand the meaning. Sometimes there are 
allusions that are not familiar and that occur too seldom to 
repay investigation. The value of an allusion depends upon 
the immediateness with which it is discerned. Pupils take 
no more pleasure in tracing out an obscure allusion than do 
adult readers. They can be brought to do some work of this 
kind, but the instances must not be too frequent in a pas- 
sage, or lack of interest will follow. 

Again, there are selections that present experiences be- 
yond those of childhood, except in extreme, abnormal cases. 
Neither pleasure nor profit comes from considering these 
in advance of their time. All selections that are too diffi- 
cult, from whatever cause, should be used primarily for 
study and discussion, having the story told by different 
members of the class, calling for the reading of such parts 
as may seem best, as shown by the interest of the class or 
by the desire of individuals. In this way, pupils who are 
developed sufficiently to understand the selection will, get 
the meaning, while the others will not be burdened with the 
attempt to realize that for which their stage of development 
has not as yet prepared them. 

Many readers contain much material of the class that is 
too difficult for the grade for which it is intended. It is 
valuable for silent reading, with discussions of the substance 
of the passages. With its use in that way will come the 
ability to use it for oral reading, also. But children are 
able to read silently with pleasure and with more or less 
profit much matter that they should not attempt to read 
orally. That which is to be read aloud, and much that is 
for silent reading, should be read with ease, if it is to be 
read with pleasure. Teachers can verify this assertion, by 



CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIAL 137 

studying their own reading. Writers of the cheap, flashy 
literature that is the bane of boyhood know this principle, 
and have written their books on this basis. The words 
are familiar or are such as catch the attention and affect the 
imagination. The sentences are short, and run with remark- 
able clearness. The paragraphs are brief and are arranged 
to carry the eye from point to point of interest. The story 
almost reads itself. Add the element of the unreal and the 
glamour of adventure, and it is not strange that boys devour 
its pages. Teachers of reading could learn valuable lessons 
from studying the elements that appeal to the boy who is 
absorbed by cheap novels. It is possible to use the same 
conditions, supplying better ideals instead of the distorted 
heroism, and to change the boy's tastes to appreciate good 
literature. Not all good literature is difficult. We must 
make more use of the simpler forms. The knowledge that 
many children "nose through" all grades of literature and 
that some of them receive much benefit from these unguided 
excursions has led to the false notion that all children should 
be required to take such material entire and has brought 
into our readers selections that cannot be used to advantage, 
except in the way last suggested. 

The fifth class, material for sight reading, is of great 
value. Most of the reading done outside of the school- 
room must be at sight, without time or opportunity for study. 
Especially is this true of the reading of later life. Accord- 
ingly pupils should be trained to read at sight. Sight read- 
ing also offers an excellent opportunity for adding to the 
interest of the work by the introduction of new and attrac- 
tive reading matter. The material for sight reading should 
be much easier than the standard material of the grade. 
From the nature of the use intended, it should not be found 
in the regular reading book of the class. It is of the utmost 



138 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

importance that it be kept from the class until it is to be 
read, otherwise there is no way of preventing previous study 
by the pupil. Children eagerly devour everything in their 
books that looks at all easy or interesting. Much of the 
benefit from this kind of reading matter comes from the 
interest given to the class work by the element of curiosity 
that is added to the recitation. The new subject-matter 
secures and holds the attention. 

From one to three books are enough for a class in sight 
reading. If more than one book is used, one can be in the 
hands of the teacher, though it is better for the teacher to 
insist that the reading be so well done by the pupil that she 
will not need a book. The very fact that she has no book 
will enable her to judge the exercise as it should be judged, 
on the basis of effective oral expression. Sight reading can 
be given a few minutes of the time of each lesson, as sug- 
gested in the chapter on Conducting the Recitation, or it can 
take the place of the regular reading lesson one day in the 
week. The important thing is that it have a good propor- 
tion of time regularly, as it will repay well the time and effort 
given to it. If sight reading is to take the place of the regular 
lesson, the study period can be spent on a list of words on 
the board, selected from the lesson. This should include 
all that could give any trouble in recognition or meaning, 
and they should be made familiar by the advance study. 
They can be written in sentences, showing that their mean- 
ing is understood, and they should be pronounced from the 
board until the organs of speech become accustomed to 
them. 

The advance study can be varied by having the pupils 
write short stories, using as the title the subject of the 
coming lesson. The list of words should be on the board, as 
before, to be pronounced before the study period as well 



CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIAL 139 

as before the recitation. The pupils should be asked to use 
such of the words as suggest themselves in the development 
of a story of the given title. There should be no studied 
effort to use all the words, but they should be used just as 
they occur naturally in such a story as the pupil may invent 
in connection with the title and with the use of a few of the 
important words of the list. The fact that a story is about 
to be read from a book on the same subject and the novelty 
of trying to parallel an unknown plot will kindle the imagi- 
nation so as to make the exercise an excellent language 
lesson, and at the same time will arouse an interest in the 
coming reading lesson. Each pupil will write better under 
the influence of the desire to achieve a definite end, and will 
also read and listen better in the desire to compare his own 
efforts with the production in the published story. One 
of the stories written by the children should be read at the 
beginning of the recitation. The rest should be taken up by 
the teacher, and can be used on subsequent days as the 
teacher thinks best, either being read to the class, exchanged 
and criticized by the pupils, or marked and returned to the 
writer as the time and plan of the teacher may warrant. 

To add to the interest and vary the work, the class is 
asked to plan the story for oral presentation. Part of the 
time for preparation is used in drawing a picture to illustrate 
the center of interest in the story. 

In conducting the recitation with sight material, a pupil 
takes one of the books. He looks at the sentence, hands 
the book to another, indicating the place, then gives the 
sentence. If there is another book, it is placed in the hands 
of a pupil in another part of the class, who gives the 
second sentence similarly. By this time, the pupil receiving 
the first book should be ready with the third sentence, and 
so the story is continued around the class. 



i4o ESSENTIALS OF READING 

The purpose in having the pupil pass the book before 
giving the sentences is to compel him to have the entire 
thought in mind before attempting to* give it, and to pre- 
vent dwelling upon the words, one at a time. It trains 
him to sweep the eye rapidly along the sentence, and helps 
him to overcome the slavish clinging to the words with 
his eye. As soon as the pupil has become natural 
and free he should be encouraged to read an entire paragraph 
before handing the book to the next pupil. He should be 
brought back to giving the single sentence without the book 
whenever he begins to depend too much upon the 
book or when the presence of book causes him to be 
unnatural. Faults in expression can be overcome sooner, 
and more easily in connection with sight-reading than 
in any other way. In sight-reading, as in all oral read- 
ing, much depends upon the skill of the teacher in 
questioning the pupil. If the pupil has failed to grasp 
the main idea in the sentence, a carefully planned question 
will lead him to see the relation of the ideas involved. As 
the sentences are short and the words are mostly familiar, 
the mechanical difficulties will not hinder him, so the ex- 
pression will generally be natural. The fact that no one 
has access to the story but the one reading, places on the 
reader the responsibility for giving his part so that all can 
get the meaning. If the story is an interesting one, and the 
teacher must select one that will be interesting, the other 
pupils will insist that it be given so they can understand it. 
The reader is under the conditions that exist in public speaking 
as nearly as they can be realized in connection with reading 
in the school room. The fact that the story is new, places 
the class in receptive attitude, and brings to the help of the 
reader the presence and inspiration of good listeners. The 
teacher should call upon those listening to give a sentence 



CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIAL 141 

from time to time, as a training in following a theme by ear 
only. This is a training perhaps equal in value to the 
ability to receive the message through the eye. At the con- 
clusion or on the following day, the class should be required 
to reproduce the story without reference to the book. 

Sight reading has the advantage that several classes 
can be combined in the exercise. Thus time can be saved for 
other subjects that are so often crowded out, or given too 
little time in the program. This can be done with no detri- 
ment to the work in reading, as the larger class is often an 
advantage to the reading exercise from the fact that it affords 
an audience. The one danger to be avoided is that of using 
material that is marked as designed for a class younger than 
the one that is to read it. Pupils do not object to reading 
easy stories, providing their pride is not hurt by the name 
applied to the book. A pupil who would be indignant at 
being asked to read in a second reader would read with pleasure 
an interesting story of the same grade if there was nothing 
about it to designate where it belonged. Stories can be cut 
out of papers and magazines and the paragraphs pasted on 
pieces of card board. These should be distributed face 
downward, with the numbers on the back. They are not 
to be turned over until the moment they are to be read. In 
this way, a great amount of the best material can be obtained 
at no expense. It is a very convenient and satisfactory way 
of conducting the recitation, as it does away with the neces- 
sity of passing the book. 

All the publishing houses have good collections of supple- 
mentary readers now, and as so few copies are needed, it is 
possible with no increase in the cost of books, to have an 
unlimited amount of the best material, thus enlarging greatly 
the range of the pupil's reading, with the added increase in 
interest in and appreciation of good literature. 



i 4 2 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

OUTLINE OF CHAPTER XII 

CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIAL 
Five kinds of material. 
First class. 

Average degree of difficulty. 
Subject matter. 
Vocabulary. 
Intrinsically worthy. 
Interesting to pupil. 
Valuable morally or intellectually. 
Second class. 
Highest grade of literature adapted to age and development of the class. 
Read repeatedly. 
Told in story form. 
Dramatized. 
Memorized. 
Third class. 

For reading for substance only. 
Training in subordination. 
The study recitation. 
Fourth class. 

Too difficult for oral reading. 
Silent reading. 
Discussion. 

Oral reading of passages. 
Fifth class. 
Sight reading. 
Importance. 

Easier than standard reader. 
Strictly at sight. 
Use of books. 
Time. 

Preparation. 
Language Lesson. 
Drawing. 

Conducting the recitation. 
Combining classes. 
Material. 

Papers and magazines. 
Books. 



CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIAL 143 

FOR REVIEW AND SUGGESTION 

1. What four kinds of material do most readers contain? 

2. What is the characteristic of each kind? 

3. What do we mean by material in degree of difficulty well suited 
to a class? 

4. What is meant by having material intrinsically worthy of study? 

5 . What effect has the meeting of a very hard word among familiar 
words ? 

6. Why not let pupils attempt to read sentences containing un- 
familiar words ? 

7. Why should the material be interesting? 

8. What kinds of material do you think is most interesting to boys of 
the intermediate grades ? To girls of the same grades ? To boys of the 
grammar grades ? To girls of the same grades ? 

9. What qualities should material have besides attractiveness? 

10. Name some selections of the first class. 

11. Should pupils be required to commit selections? Why? 

12. Give a list of selections belonging to the second class. Why 
should they be memorized ? 

13. Is the habit of reading a newspaper in three or five minutes an un- 
mixed evil? 

14. Is Frank Murry's statement correct? What makes you 
think so ? 

15. What is the teacher's duty in such a case? 

16. How can she perform it ? 

17. How should difficult selections be handled? 

18. Why do boys like dime novels? 

19. What should this teach us ? 

20. What kind of material should be used for sight reading ? 

21. How many copies of the selections for sight reading are necessary ? 

22. Why is it well for the teacher to conduct the reading lesson with- 
out a text in hand. 

23. When all the period is to be given to sight reading, what assign- 
ment can be made for the study period ? 

24. How can reading and language be correlated? 

25. How can drawing be used to add interest to the work in reading? 

26. How can an exercise in sight reading be conducted? 

27. What purpose in having the pupil pass the book before giving the 
paragraph ? 

28. How can classes be conbined for sight reading? 

29. Of what value is reproduction in reading ? 



CHAPTER XIII 
OBSTACLES TO GOOD EXPRESSION 

Many things that prevent pupils from acquiring 
good expression in reading can be removed by intelli- 
gent work on the part of the teacher. Some of the obstacles 
are so simple and can be controlled so easily that there is no 
excuse for their existence. 

The " reading tone " needs first attention. It is that 
painful, high monotone, usually accompanied by an unvary- 
ing stress on each word resulting in an absence of melody. 
It is so well known that it needs no description. So prev- 
alent is it that from the time the child first hears about school 
it has fixed in advance his idea of what constitutes reading. 
Listen while little children, before school age, "play school." 
They talk naturally enough until called upon to perform some 
school exercise, when they assume at once the "reading 
tone." This is true not only when they attempt to read, 
but in everything that is supposed to be a formal recitation. 
It is most marked in reading, and the presence of a book in 
the child's hand completes the change, if any thing was 
needed to make the attitude entirely unnatural. As this 
is before the child has been in school to form any habits, 
good or bad, it must be due to*'an indirect influence from the 
school. The child is doing its best to attain its ideal of con- 
ditions that prevail in school, and it does these absurd things 
because the atmosphere of the school-room has moved out- 
ward, and has established among children generally the 
idea that this attitude is necessary to the school-room, and 
that this strange, unnatural process is reading. 

144 



OBSTACLES TO GOOD EXPRESSION 145 

It is extremely unfortunate that children should 
enter school with wrong ideals. It is certainly not econ- 
omy of time and effort to permit the formation of any habit 
or ideal that is not to endure. Since this ideal is a true 
reflection of school-room conditions, it must be corrected 
there, if at all. That it is a reflection of the school-room, 
cannot be questioned. Let any one not a teacher enter many 
school-rooms, and he will be impressed with the unnaturalness 
of the manner of speech and recitation. Many teachers are 
so accustomed to it that it fails to attract attention. This 
is the main reason for the existence of the reading tone. It 
could be corrected in all schools in a single term if teachers 
could but hear their schools as others hear them, and could 
have their ears attuned to catch this displeasing sound. 

The condition is most evident in the reading lesson. 
It probably owes its existence primarily to that subject. 
The reading lesson should be the point of first attack. It 
will be found, in varying degree, in all classes of most schools. 
It is most marked in the primary classes, but is most disap- 
pointing in the advanced classes, where most is expected 
from the pupils. 

The ideal must be changed. There must be established 
the conception that reading is not something new and strange, 
but is the very simple process of talking, with the slight dif- 
ference that some one else supplies, through the medium of 
the written or printed page, the thoughts that are to be uttered 
by the one talking. This is so old and so well known that 
it seems trite, and yet it is the kernel of the whole matter. 
It is accepted as a truth, but is a truth for theory only, and 
it has not become a working principle in the every-day life of 
the school-room. Only in exceptional schools do children 
read as they talk, and when they do, it is because excep- 
tional teachers have caused them to recognize and feel the 



146 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

real nature of reading. Once let this idea be established in 
a school, and reading becomes a source of unlimited pleasure 
to teacher and pupil alike. 

The book is often an obstacle. The physical presence of 
the book or paper makes it difficult for the pupil to realize 
that reading is merely talking from the written or printed 
page. There is the evidence to his senses that the thoughts are 
not primarily his own, and even when he has made them his 
own in fact, the physical conditions keep calling him back to 
the foreign source, and rise as an obstacle to the free utter- 
ance of the thoughts. The first lessons in reading are usually 
given from the board. As nearly all primary teachers are 
careful to have pupils "talk from the board," there is not so 
much trouble here. On placing the book in the hands of 
the pupil, he should be required to read silently an entire 
sentence, asking questions about words not known, and 
then to give it without the book. Reading in this natural 
way with the book in hand, is the ideal to be attained, but 
the book should be removed whenever its presence causes 
unnaturalness. The frequent request, "Please tell me that," 
will serve to call the pupil back to plain, natural talking at 
every point of departure. Having secured natural expres- 
sion by this request, the recitation should move on. The 
pupil should not be asked to "read" the sentence, as if that 
were different from what had just been done. 

The mechanical difficulties of recognizing the words 
often bring the pupil acutely to the consciousness that 
he is not giving his own thoughts, but the thoughts of 
another. So much of an obstacle is this at times that the 
pupil fails to pass beyond the process of the mere recognition 
and repetition of a series of words. The concentration of 
attention upon the isolated words prevents the reception 
of the thought. As no thought has been received, none can 



OBSTACLES TO GOOD EXPRESSION 147 

be given. The remedy lies in reducing the mechanical dif- 
ficulties temporarily and in giving the pupil more power in 
surmounting them when they occur again. Often there is 
need of a radical reduction in the degree of the difficulties, 
which can be effected only by using easier material. While 
trying to overcome extreme faults in naturalness, the diffi- 
culties should be reduced to a minimum by using readers two 
or three years lower than the normal reader of the grade. 
Simple stories that have nothing about them to indicate the 
grade for which intended, are best for this purpose. If the 
subject matter is interesting and if it is well-written, it can 
hardly be too easy. Temporarily, the easier, the better. 

After placing the pupil in a natural condition by reducing 
the degree of the difficulties, it is equally important that he 
be given more power to surmount difficulties. This can 
be accomplished by frequent, extended, and persistent drill 
in recognizing isolated words from board-lists, by careful 
work in phonetics, and by the formation of the habit of using 
the dictionary. Pupils must be taught how to study a les- 
son, and one of the most important elements in this study 
is to locate the words that are obscure in meaning or uncer- 
tain of pronunciation and to find from the dictionary the 
needed information, or to obtain the assistance from the 
teacher at the beginning of the recitation. He should learn 
never to attempt to read orally a sentence that does not mean 
anything to him. 

Frequently pupils recognize words fairly well, but 
fail to see readily their relation in the development of 
the thought. This results in as serious faults in expression 
as does the failure to recognize the words. This condition 
generally results from the inability of the pupil to move the 
eye rapidly along the sentence in search of the key to the 
meaning. Such pupils should be encouraged to take in short 



ESSENTIALS OF READING 



sentences with a single glance, the length to be increased 
with the increase in power. 

The mental attitude of the reader is often a serious 
obstacle to good expression. Oral reading is an art allied 
to oratory. It differs in the source from which the material 
for speech is obtained. The orator presents original thoughts, 
or at least thoughts that express the personal attitude of the 
speaker. The reader disclaims personal responsibility, but 
endeavors to bring to the listener the message of another. 
The reader and the orator are alike in the source of their 
effectiveness. Both must have a message, must have ability 
to give the message, and must have a listener in a receptive 
attitude toward the message. The higher the degree of 
excellence realized in each of these respects, the more effect- 
ive will be the effort of either reader or speaker. Let any 
one of the elements be lacking, and the effect is partial failure. 
Whatever the ability of the orator, there can be no great ora- 
tion without a great theme and the presence of an audience 
responsive to the occasion. The nearer we can realize in 
the school-room the interest of audience and enthusiasm 
of speaker the greater will be our success in teaching reading. 

The usual method of conducting a reading recitation 
violates two of the three principles upon which oral 
reading is dependent. The speaker feels no responsibility, 
the hearers no deep source of interest. It accomplishes good 
and proper ends in teaching a careful analysis of the mate- 
rial of thought as taken from written forms, and it gives very 
valuable drill in oral expression. It does not put the reader 
or the listener into the mental attitude so necessary if the 
higher, finer influence is to be secured. Both are in equal 
possession of the message, so the reader does not feel the 
responsibility for its delivery. The listener, having no de- 
sire for a message already known, assumes a critical, instead 



OBSTACLES TO GOOD EXPRESSION 149 

of a receptive, attitude. His sole interest in the exercise, 
if there be any interest, is to criticise the way the recitation 
is made. 

Many pupils, especially in the grammar grades, do 
poor oral reading because of these conditions. The 
greatest orator that ever graced a platform could not main- 
tain himself with his audience if each member held in hand 
a copy of his address which had previously received an ex- 
haustive study, and if the attention was riveted on the minor, 
unimportant details; as, the omission, transposition and mis- 
pronunciation of words, or the bodily attitude of the speaker. 

Give the pupil the sense of responsibility for the 
delivery to his class of a message that is in his sole 
possession. Let it be a message that has intrinsic value, so 
that the class readily desires to receive it. Give him suffi- 
cient time for preparation so that he can feel on sure ground, 
and he will not fail to rise to the occasion. No matter if 
he makes a few mistakes, he will receive more benefit from 
such a lesson than from a long series of short, criticised reci- 
tations. 

The books of the teacher and most of the class should 
be closed during the recitation. This will place more 
responsibility on the one reading, even in the regular recita- 
tions. It will give in part the conditions under which oral 
reading should be practiced. All should insist that the 
exercise be read so they can understand it without the book 
in hand. 

The lack of melody is often due to the number lessons. 
The condition cannot be corrected by attention to its exis- 
tence in the reading lesson alone. The teacher must become 
conscious of its presence in every formal recitation, and must 
banish it from every position held. When pupils count, 
each number of the series, except the last, has that high, 



150 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

unnatural tone. It is, "one, two, three, four, fi ve .» 
This is similar to, "1°™* is on the sled.*' Teach 
the pupils to count in an ordinary tone of voice, giving 
each number of the series the falling inflection, just as they 
give the last, and as each would receive if it stood alone. If 
the knowledge of the other numbers in the series prevents 
giving a number the falling inflection, cover the others, 
and the number will be given with perfect naturalness. Num- 
bers should be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided 
with the same nice discrimination in expression. Let it be 
remembered that the digits as elements in computing in 
the fundamental operations, have no thought relation. As 
numbers they are related, and this relationship should be 
clearly shown. The recitation of the multiplication tables, 
instead of a monotonous chant, affords an excellent oppor- 
tunity for thought discrimination. The table of twos should 
be given as follows: Two times 0NE are TW0 « 

Two times TWO are E0UR ' 
Two times THREE are SIX - 
Two times F0UR are EIGHT ' 

Problems in analysis would be given as follows: If 
PENCIL costs FIVE CENTS > what will E0UR pencils cost? 

If 0NE pencil costs EIVE cents, E0UR pencils will cost four 
TIMES five cents, which are TWENTY cents. 

Therefore, if 0NE PENCIL costs EIVE cents, FOXm pencils 
will cost TWENTY cents. 

TWELVE is TWO-THIRDS of what number? 

If TWELVE b TWO. th j rds of & number> ONE. third of ^ 



OBSTACLES TO GOOD EXPRESSION 151 

number is one" HALF of twelve, which is SJX > if SDC is 01CE 
third of a number, THRE "thirds, or the number, are three 
^s six, which are eighteen. 

Therefore, TWELVE is two-thirds^ eighteen. 

Lists of words have no connection in thought, so each 
word should be pronounced as though it stood alone. 

The faulty way in which spelling lists are pronounced is one 
more influence tending to make unnaturalness in the school 
room. Often each word of the series is given with a pecu- 
liar rising inflection. This is due to the sense of incom- 
pleteness, from the knowledge that more words are to follow. 
Usually it can be corrected easily by covering the words 
below or following the one to be pronounced, thus helping 
the pupil to think of it as independent of the other words, 
when the expression becomes natural, the word receiv- 
ing the falling inflection. If this fails, or as a variation, 

ask the pupil, 'Ts the word ?" naming any word 

of similar or even opposite meaning. This will generally 
help him to isolate the word from the others of the series. 
Language exercises need special attention. Pupils 
should read their own language exercises better than any- 
thing else, for the words are familiar and they know the 
thought. As a matter of fact, they often show no special 
improvement, for they are so influenced by the unconscious 
idea that reading is a peculiar process that even here it asserts 
itself and the monotonous drone appears. 
All subjects of oral recitation should be watched 
carefully. Unnaturalness can be corrected only iby atten- 
tion at every point where it can exist. 



152 ESSENTIALS OF READING 



OUTLINE OF CHAPTER XIII 
OBSTACLES TO GOOD EXPRESSION 
Obstacles can be removed 
"Reading tone" 

Acquired before entering school 

Occurs in playing school 

A reflection of school life 
Wrong ideals unfortunate 
Most in evidence in reading lesson 
Ideal must be changed 

Reading not a new process 
Book an obstacle 

Remove temporarily 

Correct use of book the ideal 
Difficulty of words 

Reduce 

Increase power 
Thought relations 
Mental attitude an obstacle 

Oral reading allied to oratory 

Source of effectiveness 

Violation of principles 

Conditions explain poor reading 

Remedy 

Responsibility 
Most books closed 
Number lessons 

Counting 

Analysis 
Spelling 
Language 
Other subjects 

FOR REVIEW AND SUGGESTION 
i. What is the "reading tone"? 

2. What causes it ? 

3. How can it be overcome ? 



OBSTACLES TO GOOD EXPRESSION 153 

4. How can the book be an obstacle ? 

5. How can this obstacle be overcome ? 

6. How can the obstacle of too difficult words be overcome ? 

7. How can the difficulty of taking in the tnought by groups of 
words be overcome? 

8. What disadvantage has the usual method of conducting recita- 
tions? 

9. How does the art of oral reading resemble oratory ? What differ- 
ence? 

10. Upon what does the effectiveness of an oral reader depend? 

11. How does it help the pupil for him alone to have the book 
open? 

1 2 . What should be the mental attitude of a reader ? 

13. What may prevent gaining this attitude? 

14. How may the methods of the number class effect expression in 
reading ? 

15. How may they help expression? 

16. What care is to be exercised in pronouncing lists of words ? 



CHAPTER XIV 
THE USE OF THE DICTIONARY 

Children should be taught to use the dictionary in 
Study. This training should begin in the fourth grade 
and should continue throughout the course. No one ele- 
ment of instruction is more important than this, as it leads 
to independence and cultivates the true spirit of investigation. 
The most natural place to emphasize the importance of using 
the dictionary is in connection with reading. Pupils should 
study the reading lesson with a dictionary at hand, to verify 
the pronunciation and the meaning of the words. 

The pupils should be provided with dictionaries, 
individually, or in small groups. A dictionary for every 
pupil is the ideal condition. It is not difficult to accomplish 
this. Part of the money used for full sets of supplementary 
readers can well be used for this purpose, and the work in 
reading can be as satisfactorily done with fewer copies of the 
text. Every school should have an unabridged dictionary 
and several abridged dictionaries, but if there are not funds 
to provide both, it is more helpful to have a good supply of 
the smaller works. 

Where pupils buy their own books, it is cheaper and better 
to have them purchase a book of the grade of Webster's High 
School dictionary at first. This will serve all purposes below 
the high school. High school pupils should have a book of 
the grade of the Academic dictionary. 

Districts that own the dictionaries will find it cheaper and 
equally satisfactory to buy primary dictionaries for the fourth 
grade, common school dictionaries for the fifth and sixth 

154 



USE OF THE DICTIONARY 155 

grades, high school dictionaries for the seventh and eighth 
grades, and academic dictionaries for the high school. 

When public funds are not available, the books should be 
supplied by other means. Some schools are accomplishing 
this by forming a school sentiment such that the pupils buy 
their own dictionaries. In districts where text-books are free, 
this is an excellent plan. The very fact that the dictionary 
is the one book that is owned by the pupil places it in a favored 
class in importance. High school pupils who have used a 
book for four years, will be more liable to continue using the 
same book after leaving school. It has become an inseparable 
companion in study. 

Whatever dictionary a class is using, the teacher 
should see that the pupils are familiar with its table of 
contents. There are valuable purposes of each part of the 
dictionaries mentioned above, if used in the grades suggested. 
Often pupils complete the course of instruction with no 
knowledge of the use of a dictionary other than for the pro- 
nunciation and definition of the words given in the body of 
the book. These are important uses, but a knowledge of these 
purposes only does not make the dictionary the tool that it is 
possible of becoming in the hands of a trained student. 

The key to the symbols as given in the guide to 
pronunciation should be studied and memorized. The 
schools are doing an excellent service in teaching phonetics 
in the primary grades but it should be continued in the grades 
following. The child in those early years, when subjects 
of interest are fewer and when verbal memory is so active and 
reliable, can memorize all the words he has occasion to use. 
If the study of phonetics is to stop at the end of three years, 
as is so often the case, the time and effort required to secure 
this knowledge is not warranted by the benefits. The system 
of phonetics in the primary grades should use the diacritical 



156 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

marks employed by the dictionary that is used in the schools, 
and the knowledge acquired in the primary grades should be 
put into daily use in the succeeding years. A very little atten- 
tion here, if continued, will hold easily the great advantage 
gained. 

If the children have not been taught phonetics, the key to 
the symbols should be taken up when the dictionaries are put 
into the hands of the class, and should be studied indefinitely. 
The work should be begun gradually and should be pursued 
persistently. The ability to' indicate and express the sounds 
as found in accented syllables should be acquired first. The 
sure and accurate use of all sounds should be established before 
the pupils leave the grammar grades. One reason why 
students do not consult dictionaries more of their own initiative 
is because unfamiliarity with the symbols employed makes it 
a process of great effort with slight satisfaction in return. When 
the pupils, after going to the trouble to find a word, must 
consult a key or a list of type-words to know how to pronounce 
it, the process is not very satisfactory and is not conducive to 
repeating the same effort at another time. It is extremely 
unfortunate that the alphabet does not represent the sounds 
of the elements, but since it does not, two sets of symbols must 
be taught, or pupils will have little independence in handling 
new words. The key to the symbols should include the table 
of equivalents, so as to render it unnecessary to re-write a word 
to indicate its pronunciation, except in rare instances. 

The study of the alphabet in detail aids in correcting 
inaccuracies in the use of the elements in types common 
to many words,, A small amount of effort here will accom- 
plish more than much time spent upon individual words. There 
are common errors widely prevalent that are disclosed by this 
means, and that are not difficult of correction if begun in the 
earlier years. A systematic study of the sounds of the letters 



USE OF THE DICTIONARY 157 

as given and illustrated in this part of the guide is most helpful. 
These sounds are best established by means of type-words. 

A study of the vowels in detail brings to light a few principles 
common to many. Attention can be called to them, and they 
can be verified by having the student examine lists of words. 
Among these are the following: — 

1. Long sounds of vowels occur only under accent. 
As, ate, late, mak-er, pro-fane; eat, me-ter, re-plete; ice, mind, 
mi-ter; in-vite; old, ov-er, e—mo-tion, lo-co-mo-tive; use, du-ty, 
a-muse. Some apparent exceptions to this are due to the fact 
that secondary accents are not always marked. An effort to 
pronounce the word will disclose the necessity of the missing 
accent. Thus, ad-vo-cate (v) , em-u-late, re-form, to form a new. 

2. Removing the accent from a long vowel results in 
a modified sound, indicated by the suspended bar. Thus, 
ate, sen-ate; eve, e-vent; i-dem,i-de-a; o-vate, o-va-tion; u-nion, 
u-nite; hy-drate, hy-drau-lic. This same sound occurs in many 
French words that have been transplanted into our language; 
as, debris (da bre), cafe (ca fa). These words really have no 
word accent, and must be pronounced with a suspense of the 
voice, as if anticipating another syllable. 

3. Short vowels, excepting i or y, can neither close 
a syllable nor stand alone. Thus, man-ner, at-tend; par- 
i-ty, guar-an-ty; er-ror, a— mend; in-tel-lect; un-til; di-vide; 
a-bil—i-ty; dog, oc-cur; re-com-mit; un-der, sub-scribe. 

4. Unaccented « a ' standing alone or at the end of a 
syllable has the "short Italian" sound, indicated by a 
dot above it. In speech this often falls into the sound of the 
so-called neutral vowel. This is one of the most difficult 
characters in the list of symbols, in as much as it is really 
equivalent to four different sounds, according as it is accented or 
unaccented, or as it is followed by letters that modify its sound. 
It occurs under accent before sk, f, ft, th, ss, sp., st, nee, nt, and 



158 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

nd. In practice this is often either sharpened to short a, or 
is given so broad a sound as to result in affectation. The cor- 
rect sound can be acquired by having the pupil take the position 
of the organs for pronouncing are, then raising the main part 
of the tongue, closing slightly the mouth, and giving the 
sound a quick utterance. If this is begun in the lower 
grades, it will result in a purity of speech tending to correct the 
sharp, harsh sounds so common in connection with this 
letter. 

5. Short o under accent should not degenerate into 
broad a. They are correlatives and it is helpful to change 
from one to the other in acquiring the correct sound. Give the 
sound of a as in all; open the mouth a little more, and a quicker 
utterance of the sound gives short o. 

6. A vowel is short before r followed by a syllable 
beginning with r or another vowel. Exceptions, parent, 
parentage, garish; changes made by verb inflection or the 
suffix er; and cases where an a follows the sound of w. In the 
latter case, the sound of a is equivalent to short o; as warrant, 
quarrel. 

Examples, arrow, charity, character, farrier, barren, error, 
sirrah, orange, myriad, syrup. 

A most common error is giving a in instances like the fore- 
going the sound of a as in air. Compare air and arrow, chair 
and charity, fair and farrier, bear and barren. Note also sir 
and sirrah, orb and orange. 

Have the pupils turn to the letter a in the dictionary and 
copy, with marks, the words that follow this rule. At least 
twenty-five words beginning with ar— will be found, most of 
which are commonly mispronounced. 

Over forty words will be found beginning with par- that are 
commonly pronounced incorrectly. The list can be extended 
indefinitely by finding other combinations. Note the difference 



USE OF THE DICTIONARY 159 

in the sound of the vowels in the words Mary, marry, and merry. 
Ordinarily they are given as the same sound. 

It is helpful to study how the sound of a vowel is affect- 
ed by a change of accent, by changing its position in the 
syllable, and by the presence of other letters in the same or 
in the following syllable. Below are given lists of words 
that illustrate the effect. The numbers refer to the principles 
of pronunciation given before in this chapter. 

bar, bare, bear, bar-on (6), bar-rel (6), ba-ri-um (1), ba-rom- 

e-ter (4). 

car, care, ca-ret (1), car-et (6), ca-reer (4). 

err, er-ror (6), er-u-dite (6), e-ra (1), e-rupt (2). 

or, o-ral (1), or-a-tor (6), or-ris (6), o-ra-tion (2). 

sir, sire, si-ren (1), sir-rah (6), syr-up (6). 

Grammar grade pupils will be aided by a study of the 
more common prefixes and suffixes. Definite lessons of 
this nature will be of great economy in determining the meaning 
of words. The knowledge that un- means not gives a short 
route to the meaning of over one hundred words as listed in 
dictionaries of the academic grade. The meaning of com- in 
its various assimilated forms throws light upon many words in 
common use. 

One section contains rules for spelling certain classes 
of words. A few of these are very valuable, such as the rule 
for / and I at the end of monosyllables, the rules for deriva- 
tives of monosyllables, for derivatives of words ending in e, 
for derivatives of words ending in ie, for derivatives of words 
ending in y, and for the plural of nouns. 

There is a list of the abbreviations used in the 
dictionary. Many pupils have no knowledge of the meaning 
of these abbreviations. Unless they are directed by the teacher 
where to find this information and are required at times to 
turn to the table and verify certain abbreviations, they will 



160 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

pass over them with indifference, thus failing to receive the 
full meaning of words studied. No assistance is obtained 
from examining the word "abandon," unless the pupil knows 
the meaning of the abbreviations v.,t.,n., and F. In determin- 
ing the meaning and the pronunciation of "contract," it is 
necessary to understand the abbreviations v., L, i., a., and n. 

The systematic and helpful use of the main part of 
the dictionary is an end to be sought. The dictionary 
should be a working tool to assist in the study of every lesson. 
Not only should the teacher require an investigation of all 
new or unfamiliar words, but the pupils should be conscious 
of the fact that a strange word is a barrier to the thought and 
should investigate it of their own initiative. This attitude is 
the first characteristic of a good student. 

Pupils must be taught how to use the dictionary. 
The teacher should work with them in using it. She will find 
that many pupils do not know how to find words arranged 
alphabetically. Some of them do not know the order of the 
letters. This is a natural result of the minor emphasis given 
to the alphabet by the modern primary methods. Even 
when they know the alphabet, they do not have a definite idea 
of the relative position of the letters. They cannot tell promptly 
whether r comes before or after m. As an aid in finding words 
quickly, ask the class to turn to letter after letter in different 
parts of the book, until they are not only sure of the relation of 
the letters to each other, but also have a definite idea of the 
relative space occupied by each in the dictionary. 

After pupils are ready in finding the first letter of the 
word, they must still be shown how to find the exact posi- 
tion of the word. They must learn that words are 
arranged according to the sequence of each letter in 
the word. If the pupil is looking for Jrontis- piece, he 
should open the book as near jr as possible. At the 



USE OF THE DICTIONARY 161 

top of the page he will look for the words in heavy type 
giving the first and the last word on the page. He will find 
fra, fre, fri, jrou. On the page beginning with frightful and 
ending with frouzy, he will see that the second column begins 
with frol. The eye follows rapidly down, — from, fron, front, 
fronti, frontis- piece. He finds the word divided into syllables 
and accented with a primary accent mark. The secondary 
accent on the last syllable is not indicated. The last two 
syllables are re-written and marked diacritically. As the 
first syllable is not marked he must look back to where the 
syUable front first occurs. Here it is found marked frunt. Now 
returning to the word and noticing the marks of the two other 
syllables, the whole is easily pronounced. 

It is not a small matter to be able to find a word in the dic- 
tionary. It really requires considerable thought, and skill 
is acquired only as the result of practice. Too many teachers 
assume knowledge and skill not possessed by the average 
pupil. Time spent in acquiring facility in using the dictionary 
will greatly increase the occasions when pupils will go to it for 
assistance. 

Pupils need to be taught the meaning of the accents, both 
primary and secondary, and should have much drill in exer- 
cises including the use of both accents. 

The fact that words have different meanings is a source of 
confusion. The pupils will need help in determining mean- 
ings suited to particular instances. This aid can be given by 
working with the pupils at first, and then by assigning exercises 
that will call for discrimination as to meanings. 

Most dictionaries contain a pronouncing vocabulary of 
biblical, classical, mythological, historical and geographical 
proper names. Pupils should be familiar with this section, 
and should be encouraged to refer to it, especially in connection 
with the reading lesson. 



1 62 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

The quotations of words, phrases, and proverbs from foreign 
languages, the list of abbreviations used in writing and printing, 
and the dictionary of Greek and Roman mythology are all 
valuable parts of a dictionary and are liable to escape notice 
unless pupils are required to use them until their location in 
the dictionary is definitely known. 

Pupils trained to use the dictionary will use other 
reference books. The spirit of investigation so engendered 
will result in students not satisfied with surface meanings. 
The discriminative study of words will pass over into an inten- 
sive study of things. The student that has become conscious 
of the line separating known from the unknown will never 
rest content until he has passed beyond it, using every available 
means. This is the highest kind of intellectual training, as 
it results in power. 

OUTLINE OF CHAPTER XIV 

THE USE OF THE DICTIONARY 
In connection with reading. 
Dictionaries to be provided. 
By district. 
By pupils. 
Teach table of contents. 
Key to symbols. 
Through phonetics in primary grades. 
From dictionary. 
Alphabet in detail. 
Long vowels. 
Modified long vowels. 
Short vowels. 
Unaccented a. 
Short o. 

Vowels before r. 
Change of sound of vowels. 
Prefixes and suffixes. 
Rules for spelling. 



USE OF THE DICTIONARY 163 

Abbreviations in dictionary. 

Body of dictionary. 
Pupils must be taught. 

Order of letters. 

Relative position. 

Relative space. 

Exact place of words. 

Syllabication. 

Accent. 

Diacritical marking. 

Meanings. 
Vocabulary of proper names. 
Quotations. 
Abbreviations. 
Dictionary of Mythology. 
Influence on pupils. 

FOR REVIEW AND SUGGESTION 

1. When should children begin to use the dictionary? 

2. What dictionaries should a school have ? How many? 

3. How can dictionaries be secured? 

4. What difference as to the plan of text-book ownership in the dis- 
trict? 

5. Why should the table of contents be studied? 

6. Why is teachings of phonetics important ? 

7. Why should the diacritical marks be taught? 

8. How important is familiarity with the marks of pronunciation? 

9. What benefit will come to a school from studying and verifying 
the suggested rules for the sounds of certain vowels ? 

10. What is the most valuable end to be gained by teaching the use 
of the dictionary? 

11. How would you teach pupils to find, pronounce and determine 
the meaning of words? 

12. What valuable indirect influence comes from the persistent use 
of the dictionary? 



CHAPTER XV 
ARTICULATION 

The Chicago Tribune vouches for the truth of the following 
conversation between two girls: 

"Aincha hungry?" 

"Yeh." 

"So my. Less go neet." 

"Where?" 

"Sleev go one places nuthur." 

"So dy. Ika neet mo stennyware, Canchoo?" 

"Yeh. Gotcher money?" 

"Yeh. Gotchoors?" 

"Yeh. Ho wbout place crosstreet?" 

"Nothing teet there. Lessgurround corner." 

"Thattledoo zwell zennyware. Mighta thoughta that 'thrst. Get- 
cher rat?" 

"Ima gettinit. Gotcher money?" 

"Yeh. Didn' cheer me say I haddit? Allready?" 

"Yeh." 

"Kmon." 

The conversation is not improbable. After a little investi- 
gation one is ready to believe that the incident is a true one. 
Nearly every one says "canchoo" instead of "can't you." 
"Thattledoo' ' is very common for "that will do." "Howdudoo " 
passes current for "How do you do." One frequently finds 
himself at a loss to understand the words of a friend when he 
has no context upon which to base a guess as to the meaning 
of his friend's vocalization. This should be an embarassing 
condition to the friend, for there is no more certain evidence 
of culture than an elegant and distinct enunciation. 

A good articulation has a commercial value. From a 

164 



ARTICULATION 165 



boy's articulation, the prospective employer unconsciously 
judges the boy's character. An indistinct, mumbled sentence 
indicates to him inaccuracy, carelessness, or laziness. A dis- 
tinct articulation indicates self-control, energy, carefulness, and 
courage. 

It is important, therefore, that the schools should 
attend to articulation. The reading class is the one to whose 
share the exercise rightly belongs. Time should be taken 
each day for practice. The time should be at the beginning 
of the period, in order that it may not be crowded out. The 
teacher should not expect to attend to articulation during oral 
reading. A pupil cannot think at the same time of both thought 
and words, of both expression and articulation. The one 
thing is certain to injure the other. Sometimes a pupil will 
render a sentence with good expression, and when asked to 
repeat it pronouncing a certain word more distinctly, he will 
give an incorrect or inane expression. The cause of this is 
that the articulation of the word now sways the mind of the 
reader, not the thought of the sentence. Therefore, the drill 
in articulation should be distinct from the work in expression. 
If the text is used for drill, the teacher should not ask for good 
expression, while requiring good articulation. 

Articulation exercises should be systematic. Those 
sounds that are the hardest to pronounce distinctly should be 
practiced most. The consonant sounds will be found the 
most difficult. Exercises are added to this chapter on the most 
difficult of these. One exercise a day can be placed on the 
board, practiced, and copied into note books for review. A 
pupil who practices faithfully the few exercises given here will 
acquire the habit of careful articulation. Have pupils drill 
in concert, then individually, on both words and sentences. 
Insist that the sounds be distinctly heard. The list of exer- 
cises can be indefinitely extended. The exercise consisting 



166 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

of the many long words is intended to help overcome the habit 
of omitting syllables in long words. We often say "par-tic- 
lar-ly," instead of "par-tic-ii-lar-ly." For review work 
ordinary text can be used. Insist that every syllable and 
every sound be made distinct. 

Method of instruction. In giving a lesson it is well for 
the teacher to require both concert and individual work. In 
the concert work, have all pronounce the words together, 
urging force on the desired sound. Work with them, urge 
them, almost force them to use energy. In the individual work 
let each pronounce a word or a sentence distinctly. In using 
long words, take up one word at a time. Have it pronounced 
very slowly and distinctly, then more and more rapidly, see- 
ing to it that each syllable is still pronounced distinctly. 
Stand in the corner of the room farthest from the speaker, 
and insist that every sound be so pronounced as to make you 
hear it. It takes energy to make the d's and t's carry. See 
to it that the pupils place the organs of speech correctly, and 
that they stand or sit correctly. 

The exercises are grouped according to the organs 
principally used in their formation. Exercises 1-6 
include the labials, the sounds made principally with the lips. 
See to it that the lips are active in pronouncing these. Exer- 
cises 7-15 include the dentals, the sounds affected most by the 
teeth. See to it that the lips do not obstruct these sounds. 
Draw them back out of the way. Exercises 16-18 include the 
palatals, sounds affected most by the palate. Exercises 19-20 are 
drills on the nasals, sounds in which part of the sound is sent 
through the nose. Exercises 21-22 are drills on the liquids, 
those sounds which easily unite with other sounds. Exercise 
23 is a drill on the aspirate h; while 24-31 are drills on hard 
combinations. No attempt has been made to give a complete 
drill in articulation. The sounds on which exercises are given 



ARTICULATION 



167 



are the ones most likely to be given improperly, thereby causing 
indistinct articulation. It would be well, if we could also 
drill our pupils on vowel sounds, thereby gaining pure tones 
in addition to distinctness. The point of attack, however, 
in the public schools is distinctness. We shall be satisfied if we 
gain that. The exercises are therefore confined to the con- 
sonants. 



bear bat 

rub dab 

brute bob 

A big black bug bit a big black bear 
Brother Bill beat brother Ben. 
Bees build beautiful abodes. 



LABIALS 




1. B 




bill 


robber 


tub 


button 


battle 


hubbub 



pet trip repeat 

pipe pup supply 

pint , pinch simply 

People partake plenteously of supper. 
The parson prays for peace. 
Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers. 



prepay 

suppose 

purpose 



3-F 

fan . elf finish 

fin muff profanity 

fame scarf twelfth 

Finny fishes furnish fine food. 
Fun and frivolity follow foolish fancies. 
French fried fritters fill folks full. 



famish 
defame 
folk 



i68 



ESSENTIALS OF READING 



vine 


love 


4- V 

knives 


vision 


vim 
hive 


save 
move 


very- 
vanish 


revive 
bereave 



His voice revived the vile villain. 

The violent vandals vanished. 

The valiant victor saved the bereaved lover. 

5- M 
man mum number famish 

mule mill family lament 

ham sum molest amble 

The miserable mule moves mournfully. 
The nimble monkey mixes the melons. 
Money may make much misery. 

6. W 
wig went wraps wiggle 

wart wear wish western 

bow woe wail wrinkle 

The wan widow wears worn wraps. 
William was wishing to wind the clock. 
The warrant for the wanderers was wisely withheld. 



DENTALS 




7- T . 

tickle 


tattle 


titter 


fit 


mitten 


teeth 



cat tar 

fat tread 

boat tote 

Two tame tigers taught Timothy timidity. 

Betty thought "Twice Told Tales" thrilling throughout. 

Ten troops went straight to the fort. 

8. D 
dent paid afraid bidder 

did date demand slender 

made bide deduct ladder 



ARTICULATION 



169 



Daisy devotedly dug dandelions. 
Daniel did his duty diligently. 
The road led through the wood. 

9. CH 
chair bench charm 

chain chew cherry 

birch much flinch 

Chums cherish each other. 
Chiggers chew the children's chief champion. 
The cheerful child chatters much. 

10. J or G 
just jerk singe 

gem gin huge 

jewel gill jelly 

George Jones jeers the gypsies. 
James gently suggests a journey. 
A large major unjoints a fragile gymnast. 

n. S 
sun slip 

hiss moss 

sat soup 

Swan swam over the sea; swim, swan, swim 
The last fruits are the sweetest. 
Six misses sat beside the priest. 

12. S or Z 
ease buzz surprise 

zinc freeze expose 

shoes tears husband 

The prize pleased the visitors. 
The reason for those things is easy. 
Please excuse Susie's sneeze. 



chisel 

chicken 

enchant 



giraffe 

majestic 

magic 



mistress 


Susan 


insist 


solar 


parson 


mistake 



busy 

because 

amaze 



170 



ESSENTIALS OF READING 



13. SH 
shoe shed flesh 

shake mush dash 

wash ship sugar 

The shape of the ship shows shrewdness. 
She shook the shrieking shrew sharply. 
Shall she wish sugar and shun mush ? 

14. TH 
path through bath 
both thick thrush 
thrash think smith 
Theophilus Thistle thrust three thousand thistles through the 
thick of his thumb. 

Thousands of thrifty thrushes thronged through the thickets. 

15. TK 

then that those 

the with other 

scathe lithe than 

Neither of them bothers the other. 
They loathe the southern weather. 
A farthing withers in this northern place* 



shinny 
fashion 
friendship 



thistle 

thousand 

thrift 



bother 
rather 
neither 



r 





PALATALS 






16. K or€ 




can milk 


rebuke 


looking 


kind drink 


acorn 


kitten 


cow frisk 


dictate 


Yankee 


Kate kindly killed the kittens. 




The cat drank and crept away. 




This key can conquer 


creaking locks. 
17 G 




get gas 


garter 


garden 


gift ghost 


muggy 


govern 


gum guide 


begin 


giggle 



ARTICULATION 



171 



Minnie 
niggard 
tenant 



Disguised guards gathered the guns. 
Gertrude giggled and gasped. 
The rogue wriggled and got away. 

18. Y 

yet yacht yeomen yellow 

yield yeast youth yesterday 

yard yolk yelp yiddish 

The yellow dog yelps at the yeoman. 
Yesterday's yield is not yet in the yard. 
The youth yells at the yawning yachtsman. 

NASALS 

19. N 
not gun lantern 
tin nine canteen 
Ned nun begin 
Names mean nothing if not noted. 
Nine nuns began normal work. 
The gunner nicked the lantern. 

20. NG 
ring song single belong 

bang among clanging hanger 

fling throng singer mangle 

Singing mingled with the clanging noise. 
Stinging bees are thronging among them. 
Moaning and groaning he flung himself over. 



long link 

hall old 

large mule 

All listen to the liquid melody. 
Large bells excel in loudness. 
Laughter lasts longer than melancholy. 



LIQUIDS 




21. L 




languish 


belate 


expel 


laughter 


liquid 


lily 



172 



ESSENTIALS OF READING 







22. R 




rat 


car 


rattle 


rarify 


ring 


bore 


marl 


hurry 


roU 


mire 


heart 


martyr 



Her remarks were ready and reproachful. 
The roar receded as it rapidly retired. 
He hurries to resist the ravenous rascals. 
ASPIRATE 

23. H 

hat hitch humble 

hem hard hushing 

hole huge hickory 

He hesitates to hurt his hearers. 
Harry hurries to hide his history. 
Heavy hindrances are hastily hustled hither. 
HARD COMBINATIONS 

24. BS 
mobs tubs grubs 
rubs bobs stubs 
tubes hubs cabs 

The cubes were made from slabs and clubs. 
He daubs the orbs with paint from the tubes. 
He stabs the leader of the tribes in the ribs. 

25. DS 
buds gads yards 
lads hides beholds 
loads dudes abodes 
The words of the ballads hides the moods. 
He adds the loads of beads to the goods. 
One of the lads grabs the swords. 

26. GS 
dregs sags rags 
bags bogs rugs 
kegs tags lags 



hubbub 

handle 

harm 



hubbubs 
imbibes 
describes 



unloads 
ballads 
succeeds 



hags 
dogs 
pegs 



ARTICULATION 



173 



The dregs of the jugs gags even hogs. 

The bags contain frogs' legs. 

The fags bring the jugs, and arrange the figs and eggs. 



27. PS 
maps pups glimpse 

tops ropes pumps 

laps scraps lips 

One of the maps flaps against the lamps. 
The man with the caps reaps the crops. 
He leaps and grasps the ropes. 

28. KS or X 

box flax mixture 

necks larks oxen 

lakes strikes ducks 

Wrecks on the lakes vex the Mexicans. 
Rex strikes the oxen on their necks. 
The packs of books go the Arctics. 

29. ST 
must most wildest 

cast dust request 

rust roost warmest 

The largest post made the greatest mast. 
The wildest beast will fight the most. 
He still insists he sees the ghost. 



3°- 



WH 

what whim whether 

when which whither 

why wharf whisper 

Where are the whisperers? 
Why are the wheels whirling ? 
Would you whistle, whine, or whisper? 



escapes 
gossips 
perhaps 



appendix 

lilacs 

attacks 



digest 
insist 
contest 



meanwhile 

whinny 

whistle 



174 



ESSENTIALS OF READING 







31. ZH 




usual 


visual 


measure 


pleasure 


rouge 


azure 


leisure 


delusion 


seizure 


treasure 


diversion 


composure 



Decision, precision, and composure were usual traits. 
The Hoosiers in confusion destroyed the illusion. 
In conclusion, the explosion was a delusion. 



in com plete 
mis er a ble 
con cep tion 
di rec tion 
moun tain ous 
neg a tive 
al ti tude 



32. 
al to geth er 
af fee ta tion 
bois ter ous ly 
Brit tan ni a 
ge og ra phy 
col lee tion 
com pli ca tion 

33- 



con sci en tious 
ex pe ri ence 
ex trav a gant 
us u al ly 
re frig er a tor 
im me di ate ly 
un con di tion al 



The goods are not at all satisfactory. 

The government makes it obligatory to label oleomargarine. 
Collection and direction need particular care. 
Pronounce carefully usually and immediately. 

34- 

ar tic u la tion ca pit u lar cal or if i ca tion 

im pen e tra ble cir cum nav i gate in ter de pen den cy 

par tic u lar ly the o log ic al e jac u la to ry 

al ien ate in com pre hen si ble gen er al is simo 

cam phor at ed a mal ga ma tion id e o graph ic al ly 

cal um ni a tor cal is then ic al ly in ex tri ca ble 

35- 
He spoke of it particularly and peremptorily declared it inex- 
plicable. 
The incomprehensibility of the calumniator was impenetrable. 



ARTICULATION 175 



He is the generalissimo of the antidisestablishmentariaa amal- 
gamation. 

36. 
The following exercises are added for further drill. 
1. His cry moved me. His crime moved me. 



9 



He can pay nobody. He can pain nobody. 

The battle last still night. The battle lasts till night. 

The culprits ought to be punished. 

The culprit sought to be punished. 

He can debate on either side of the question. 

He can debate on neither side of the question. 

They never imagined such an ocean to exist. 

They never imagined such a notion to exist. 

10. They discovered naught but wastes and deserts. 

11. They discovered naught but waste sand deserts. 

37- 

1. The wild beasts straggled through the deepest shade. 

2. The finest streams through the tangled forests strayed. 

3. The heights, depths, and breadths of the subject. 

4. Ice cream, not I scream; an ice-house, not a nice house. 

5. Then rustling, crackling, crashing, thunder down. 

6. The strife ceaseth, and the good man rejoiceth. 

7. He was most mindful in memory of that mysterious 
mummery. 

8. The rough and rugged rocks rear their hoary heads high 
on the heath. 

9. He had great fear of offending the frightful fugitive in his 
flight. 

10. The vile vagabond ventured to vilify the venerable 
veteran. 

1 1 . We wandered where the whirlpool wends its winding way. 

12. The stripling stranger strayed through the struggling 
stream. 



176 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

13. The swimming swan swiftly swept the swinging sweep. 
(Swim, swam, swum! — well swum, swimming swan!) 

14. Round and round the rugged rocks, the ragged rascals 
ran. 

15. No sheet nor shroud enshrined those shreds of shrivel'd 
clay. 

16. Sam Slick sawed six slim, sleek saplings for sale. 

17. Six brave maids sat on six broad beds, and braided broad 
braids. 

18. Amidst the mists and coldest frosts, 
With barest wrists and stoutest boasts, 
He thrusts his fists against the posts, 
And still insists he sees the ghosts. 

38. 
ALPHABETICAL ALLITERATION AND ARTICULATION 

Alderman Affluent always adjudicated with admirable ability. 

Brother Ben boldly beat, battered, and bruised the British 
with his bludgeon. 

Columbus Capricorn was cross, crabbed, crooked, 
carbuncled, and crusty. 

Deborah Diligent danced delightfully with a droll and dex- 
terous drummer. 

Elizabeth Edmonson cooked eleven eggs with excellent 
edibles. 

Frederick Firebrand fiercely fought a funny and fidgety 
fiddler. 

Gregory Gobbleum gaped and gabbled like a goose or gander. 

Hercules Hardheart hit a hawk on the head with a hatchet. 

Isaac Ingham inhabited an inclement and isolated island in 
Italy. 

Jemima Juniper with joy did jump a jig in jeopardy. 

Kate Kirkman kindly kissed her knowing kinsman. 



ARTICULATION 177 

Lem Lawless was a loudly laughing, lounging, long, lean, 
lank, lazy loafer. 

Maximilian Mettlesome magnanimously met a mutinous 
mountaineer. 

Nancy Nimble, with a nice new needle, netted neat nets. 

Omar Overall ordered Oliver Ollapod to overawe Owen 
Oldbuck. 

Professor Punch and Paulina Polk performed the Patagonia 
polka perfectly. 

Quintuple Quorum quickly questioned a queer and quizzical 
quidnunc. 

Roderic Random ran a ridiculous race on the Richmond 
railroad. 

Sophonisba Scribblewell was superlatively and surprisingly 
sentimental. 

Theophilus Talkative told tremendous, terrible, terrific, and 
tragic tales. 

Ursula Urgent uninterruptedly and universally used an um- 
brella. 

Valentine Vortex victoriously vanquished a vindictive villager. 

Wilhelmina Whirligig warbled with winning and wonderful 
witchery. 

X-ecrable X-antippe x-hibited x-traordinary and x-cessive 
x-citability. 

Young Yankee, a youthful yeoman, yawned at Yarmouth. 

Zedekiah Zigzag was a zealous zoological zoophite in the 
frozen zone. 



178 



ESSENTIALS OF READING 



OUTLINE OF CHAPTER XV 



ARTICULATION 



Importance. 

Duty of the schools. 

Systematic drill. 

Method of instruction 

Exercises. 

fi-b 



Labials 



Dentals 



Palatals 



Nasals 



2-p 

3-* 
4-v 
5-m 

6-w 
l7-t 
f8-d 
I 9~ch 
I io-j 
•{ n-s 

I2-Z-S 
I3-Sh 

L 14-th 

16-k 

i7-g 
18-y 



( 19-n 
' - { 20-n 

Liquids j _ 



n S 



Aspirate . 



Hard Combinations- 



23-h 

24-bs 

25-ds 

26-gs 

27-ps 

28-ks 

29-st 

30-wh 

31-zh 

32-Long words. 

33-Sentence of long words. 

34-Long words. 

35-Sentences of long words. 



ARTICULATION 179 

FOR REVIEW AND SUGGESTION 

1. Is the Chicago Tribune example of bad articulation probable? 

2. What is the quality of the articulation of the average person? 

3. Of what commercial value is good articulation? 

4. Of what social advantage is it ? , 

5. How does good articulation indicate character? 

6. How does it influence character? 

7. Why not require careful articulation in all oral rea'ding? 

8. Do children all know how to place the organs of speech in pro- 
nouncing words? 

9. What difficulties in articulation have children of different nation- 
alities? 

10. What consonant sounds are usually pronounced poorly? 

11. What are the most difficult to pronounce? 

12. Some sounds are easy to make, but very hard to be heard at any 
distance ? What are these sounds ? 

13. What vowel sounds ought to be studied if time permits? 

14. Of what value are the long word exercises? 



CHAPTER XVI 

ILLUSTRATIVE LESSON — AN ORDINARY PRIMARY 
LESSON 

The primary teacher has just finished her opening exercises. 
Her pupils have sung three songs, including a motion song. 
She has passed around among them a pod of cotton, a bit of cot- 
ton batting, and a bit of cotton cloth. She has had a bright 
conversation with them concerning the manufacture of cotton 
goods. Now she and they are ready to take up the regular 
tasks. She turns to her first-reader class. Spring is now 
approaching, and this class started to school in September. 
They have read the first parts of two first readers. They are 
now reading in the first part of a more difficult first reader. 
The teacher is carrying three lines of work with this class: 
articulation drills, phonic work, and the regular reading. 
For convenience she has these lines of work at different times 
in the day. There is no reason for using different times, aside 
from convenience and the proper distribution of work. In 
the early primary work it is important to keep the phonic work 
and reading separate, in order to inculcate a right ideal of 
reading, but this reason no longer holds with this class. She 
has a phonic period immediately after the opening exercises, a 
reading period after recess, and an articulation exercise just 
before the forenoon dismissal. Her work to-day is the ordinary 
hum-drum work, unrelieved from monotony by any bright 
device. She uses such devices as will serve her purpose, but 
she knows that it is the regular methods that count. 

The time has now come for the phonic work. The 
teacher plans in the work of this day, to teach the sounds of 

180 



AN ORDINARY PRIMARY LESSON 181 

"q." She expects also to teach some new phonic analysis, as 
well as to review and drill on some sounds and sound analysis 
already given. 

The teacher brings her class before the black-board. She 
will do the review work first, in order to have the foun- 
dation upon which to build the new work. The pupils 
see on the board the following sound symbols and words: 
S> g> g, h v > °°> °°> o, cell, -eradle, big, flag, cage, job, wedge, 
city, lace, love, have. These have all been on the board before, 
but the teacher has changed the order and position, so that she 
may be sure that no pupil is remembering by position, rather 
than by the appearance of the word or symbol. The teacher 
calls pupils by name, while pointing to one place after another. 
The pupils answer promptly. Finally the teacher points to 
"cage." It happens that the teacher has missed this word in 
the exercise. The pupil who is called upon remains silent. 
He does not recall the word. The teacher turns to the board 
and covers with her hand the letters "age." The pupil rec- 
ognizes the symbol "-e," and sounds it. The teacher now 
covers the letter "-e," and the pupil recognizes and sounds 
"age." The teacher lifts her hand, uncovering the whole 
word, and the pupil speaks the word "cage." The drill con- 
tinues until the teacher is satisfied that the pupils know these 
sounds and words. 

She is now ready to teach the new lesson. She writes 
on the board, "broom, moon, shoot, shoe, twQ, prove. 
The pupils readily speak the three words, "broom," "moon," 
and "shoot," for these are old words. They know the words 
"shoe" and "two" as sight words, words that they recognize 
without regard to the sound. The teacher now, by questions, 
brings out the fact that the sound in these words is the "do" 
sound. The teacher adds as her contribution to the lesson, 
the fact that the letter "o" when marked "q," indicates the 



182 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

same sound that "60" indicates. She now marks the words 
"shQ§, and "t^Q," and then the new word "prQv§." The 
pupils sound and pronounce these words. The teacher now 
writes on the board the words, "cano§," and " mov^," and has 
the pupils pronounce these, thereby adding them to their 
vocabulary. The teacher continues the drill until the time 
has expired. 

Immediately after recess the teacher turns to her first-reader 
class once more. She says to them: "In the lesson to-day 
there are three new words. It may be that you know one of 
them." She writes on the board the words, "my, owlet, 
Ewa-yea." The raising of the hands tells her that at least 
one word is old, and she finds that every member of the class 
knows " my." It has been brought to their attention in another 
reader. She marks the other words, and helps the class to 
learn them. She sees to it that the meaning of each word 
is clear. For fear that memories may prove faithless, she 
also places on the board the words, "lived," "lulled," and 
"stilled." These words have been used in the preceding lessons, 
but she fears that they may have been forgotten. 

"To-day we will read more about Hiawatha," she says. 
"Open your books at page twenty and read what is on that 
page. I shall want you to tell me how Nokomis puts little 
Hiawatha to sleep." The pupils read the following text: 

The owlet lived in the trees. 

Hiawatha lived in the wigwam. 

Nokomis lulled him into slumber. 

"Hush," she said, "my Hiawatha, 

Hush! the Bear will hear thee!" 

She called him a little owlet. 

She stilled his wail by singing, 
"Ewa-yea! my little owlet!" 

While the pupils read silently, sounding out to themselves 
any words not instantly recognized, the teacher waits, watching 



AN ORDINARY PRIMARY LESSON 183 

for an opportunity to help some one who can not help himself. 
She soon finds a chance. A small boy raises his hand. "What 
is it, my boy?" " S-1-u-m-b-e-r," he spells. The teacher 
turns, writes the word on the board, marks it, and turns back 
to the pupil, without saying anything. There is nothing 
to be said. The pupil needs help, and she is giving help. Any 
talk would interfere with the process. He needs still more help. 
She covers the first syllable with her hand. He says, "ber." 
She moves her hand back until it covers only the "si." The 
pupil says, "umber." She now removes her hand, and he says, 
"slumber." The teacher now asks, "Do you know what 
'slumber' means ? " The pupil satisfies her that he does. Two 
or three of her pupils ask and receive help, the teacher each 
time helping them to get the word from the marking. 

After a time has been allowed for this silent preparation, 
the teacher calls for the attention of the class. It is her pur- 
pose now to find out how well the pupils have gleaned 
the thought from the printed page. "Please close your 
books," she says. " What is our lesson about ? " Many hands 
wave in the air. "Patrick." "About Hiawatha." "Is that 
all?" " It's about Nokomis, too." " What does it tell about 
Hiawatha and Nokomis, Howard?" "It tells how Nokomis 
puts Hiawatha to sleep by singing to him." "What does 
Nokomis call him, Estelle?" "A little owlet," says Estelle. 
"Why does Nokomis tell him to hush, Mitchell?" "Because 
the bear will hear him," answers Mitchell. "What did she 
sing to him, Howard?" "She sang, 'Ewa-yea! my little 
owlet!" And the teacher continues the conversation until 
satisfied that the class has the thought. 

She finally says to her pupils, "Now we will read the story 
itself. The first sentence, Earle." Earle reads the first sen- 
tence, to the satisfaction of the teacher. "The next, Howard." 
Howard reads the second sentence, but the expression is poor. 



184 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

He pronounces the words as if he were calling off, "eny-meny- 
miny-mo." The teacher isn't at all satisfied. "Please close 
your book, Howard, and tell me where Hiawatha lives." 
Howard forgets that he is reading and answers correctly: 
" Hiawatha lives in a wigwam" His attention has been drawn 
from the separate words to the thought relation. He answers 
in the words of the text, for he has been taught that when the 
teacher asks such questions in the reading class, she expects 
the sentence to be read again, and the answer brought out by 
emphasis. 

"The next, Estelle." Estelle wants to read with expression. 
She reads, "Nokomis lulled him into slumber." She nods her 
curly head as she brings out the italicized words. The teacher 
doesn't like this much better than she did Howard's reading. 
The cause of each failure is the same — lack of attention to the 
thought. The treatment needed is the same. "Estelle," she 
says, "what does Nokomis do?" Estelle reads the sentence 
again, thinking this time of what Nokomis does, and not of how 
she is making every one envy her on account of her good 
reading. 

"The next, Irene." Irene reads well. "The next, Mit- 
chell." Mitchell does not bring out the thought of the sentence. 
"What is mentioned for the first time in this sentence, Mit- 
chell?" Mitchell answers, "The Bear." "Then read the 
sentence again." Mitchell reads the sentence, and reads it 
well. "The next, Patrick." Patrick proves hopeless. He 
does not respond to any of the teacher's devices. If the teacher 
could devote all her time to this one boy, she might be able to 
lead him to give the correct expression to the thought. But she 
must pass Patrick in the interests of the remainder of the class. 
While she has been working with Patrick, Earle has begun to 
wink at Howard, and Irene is about to balance her book on 
her head, hat fashion. So the teacher turns away from Pat- 



AN ORDINARY PRIMARY LESSON 185 

rick. "Please read the sentence, Hulda." Hulda reads it 
with good expression. "Now, Patrick." Patrick does better 
than heretofore, though much might still be desired. 

Frank is called upon for the next sentence, and he is much 
abashed when his attention is called to the fact that the next 
sentence includes two lines. At his second attempt he reads 
well. Other members of the class are called upon, and the 
teacher finishes this part of her work by asking Howard and 
then Estelle to stand facing the class while they read the 
entire lesson. 

The teacher has so planned, that she has still some time 
left. She devotes this time to supplementary reading. 
She has within her reach three copies of another first reader. 
Quickly she hands two out. "Page 41," she says. The 
places is found almost as soon as she says it, and the reading 
begins. The text is easy, much easier than that which they 
have been reading. The pupil designated looks over the first 
paragraph, is told any new word, reads the paragraph, and 
passes the book on. The next paragraph is read in the same 
way by the pupil having the other book, and so the lesson is 
continued. Finally she has the story told and asks what are 
the important things in what has been read, what is to be 
remembered. 

Just before the noon dismissal the teacher calls up the 
class once more, this time for the articulation exercise. 
The teacher has placed on the blackboard the following : 

Pet pipe pint pen nap trap 

fan full calf muff half fast 

prove move vim A r ote give have 

With pointer in hand, she says, "The first line of words to- 
gether. You know that we have had these words before, but 
you know how hard it is to pronounce the p's." As she points 



186 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

to the words, the pupils pronounce, "Pet, pipe, pint, pen, nap 
— " "No." the teacher interrupts, "that is not distinct 
enough. Altogether now, the p's very hard. 'Nap, trap.' 
Once more ; 'nap, trap, pet, pipe, pint, pen, nap, trap.' " "Now, 
the second line as I point. Let us work hard on these f s. 
Ready, 'fan, full, calf, muff, half, fast.' Now, once more, 
'fan, full, calf, muff, half, fast.' 

"This third line," continues the teacher, "has a sound that 
we have not practiced. If is like the f, but the voice helps 
make the sound. It is this sound (gives the sound of v). It 
is a hard sound to make loud, but we are going to try hard. 
I shall stand in this corner away off from you. See if you can 
make me hear the sound. Now, three times with me, 'v,v,v.' 
That is good. Now without me. Ready, 'v,v,v.' That was 
well done. Now, the words, 'prove, move, vim, vote, give, 

have.' Once more, without my help. That was fine. 

Now each one by himself down this row, up this, down this, 
up this, as I point to the words." So the teacher continues the 
drill until the time is exhausted. 

OUTLINE OF CHAPTER XVI 

ILLUSTRATIVE LESSON — AN ORDINARY PRIMARY 

LESSON 
The three lines of work. 

Articulation drills. 

Phonic work. 

Reading. 
The time of the recitation. 
The Phonic work. 

Review work. 

New work. 
The word preparation. 
The silent reading. 

The assistance of the teacher. 



AN ORDINARY PRIMARY LESSON 187 

The conversation about the lesson. 
The oral reading. 

Methods. 
The supplementary reading. 

Thought questions. 
Articulation drill. 

Review work. 
New words. 

FOR REVIEW AND SUGGESTION 

f. How does this primary teacher open her day's work? 

2. What three lines of work is this teacher doing in this class ? 

3. When does she find time for each exercise? 

4. Why have the exercises at different times ? 

5. Why does she devote so much time to review work in phonics? 

6. Why have the review work first ? 

7. Of what value is the word preparation? 

8. What work does she assign for preparation ? 

9. What does this teacher do while the pupils are reading silently ? 
10. What is the purpose of the conversation about the lesson? 

n. How does the teacher try to secure correct expression from one 
who has read poorly? 

12. What does the teacher do after the failure of a number of at- 
tempts to secure good expression from a pupil ? 

13. How difficult work does she use for the supplementary reading? 

14. Why so much review in articulation work? 



CHAPTER XVII 

ILLUSTRATIVE LESSON— WHAT THE INTERMEDI- 
ATE TEACHER ACTUALLY DOES 

THE STONE IN THE ROAD 

There was once a very rich man who lived in a beautiful castle near 
a village. He loved the people who lived in the village, and tried to help 
them. He planted beautiful trees near their houses, and made picnics 
for their children, and every Christmas gave them a Christmas tree. 

But the people did not love to work. They were very unhappy 
because they, too, were not rich like their friend in the castle. One day 
this man got up very early in the morning, and placed a large stone in the 
road that led past his home. Then he hid himself behind the hedge and 
waited to see what would happen. 

By and by a poor man came along, driving a cow. He scolded be- 
cause the stone lay in his path, but he walked around it and went on his 
way. 

Then a farmer came on his way to the mill. He complained because 
the stone was there, but he, too, drove around it and went on his way. 

So the day passed. Every one who came by scolded because the 
stone lay in the road, but nobody touched it. 

At last, just at nightfall, the miller's boy came past. He was a hard- 
working fellow, and was very tired, because he had been busy since 
early morning at the mill. 

But he said to himself, "It is almost dark. Somebody may fall over 
this stone in the night, and perhaps be badly hurt. I will move it out 
of the way." 

So he tugged at the heavy stone. It was hard to move, but he pulled, 
and pushed, and lifted, until at last he moved it from its place. To his 
surprise, he found a bag lying beneath it. 

He lifted the bag. It was heavy, for it was filled with gold. Upon 
it was written, "This gold belongs to the one who moves the stone." 

Great value can be gained by examining in detail the 
work of a skillful teacher of reading. While the study of 
the different principles upon which right method rests is essen- 

188 



WHAT THE TEACHER ACTUALLY DOES 189 

tial, the observation of an application of these principles in a 
specific case is the operation of final importance. Let us, 
therefore, take the selection printed above and set forth the 
way a skillful teacher would handle it. 

The teacher would plan his work at least two days in 
advance. One day is not sufficient, for the assignment must 
be planned as carefully, and even more carefully, than the 
recitation. Let us imagine that some time on Monday, pos- 
sibly Monday evening, the teacher decides to have the above 
selection for Wednesday's lesson. He intends to make this 
a lesson whose purpose is the training of the pupils in the 
gleaning of thought and the increase of vocabulary, as well as 
training in expression. He looks over the lesson, noticing how 
many new words are used. He decides that the whole selection 
will not be too long for a single lesson. He is influenced in 
this decision by his knowledge of the ability of his class as well 
as by his knowledge of the selection. He then underlines in 
his book the words that he believes will be new to his pupils. 
This is a part of his preparation for the assigning of the lesson. 
He knows that he will not have time when the moment comes 
to decide just which words are new. True, the list of words 
at the head of the lesson are probably all new. But this class 
may know some of them, and this class may know some 
not included in that list. So he must verify the list and add 
other words according to his judgment. When he finishes, he 
has underlined "castle," "village," "Christmas," "early," 
"hedge," "complained," and "surprise." He then thinks of 
the work that should be assigned. He decides what this shall 
be, and makes notes in the margin of his book in order that he 
may not forget his plan. He places crosses opposite the sen- 
tences beginning, "To his surprise," "One day this man," 
"There was once." He also writes in the margin, "Words 
hard to spell." 



iqo ESSENTIALS OF READING 

An articulation exercise also must be planned, unless 
the teacher has already mapped out a series of exercises 
for the whole month or term. A systematic course of exer- 
cises is much more profitable than improvised exercises. In 
case, however, the teacher has planned no course, he will select 
some sound upon which to build his exercise. He may, if he 
have a nimble mind, leave the details until the time comes for 
placing the exercise on the blackboard, although most teachers 
will find it advisable to plan this detail in advance. The 
teacher whose work we are following, decides to base the exer- 
cise on the sound of "f." He writes in the margin of his book 
the words, "beef, fife, muff, five, flap, trough," and the sen- 
tences, "Half his life was spent in grief." "Can't you find 
your fan ? " After reading the lesson carefully enough to know 
it, the teacher now leaves it until the time for the assigning of 
the lesson. 

A certain definite time should be put apart for the 
assigning of the reading lesson. Three times are possible : 
at the beginning of the previous day's lesson, at the end of the 
previous day's lesson, or immediately before the time set apart 
for the study of the lesson. In the lower grades the last time 
is probably the best, in that it gives the children an interest in 
the work that they are to begin. Another advantage is that 
the directions are fresh in the minds of the children, and the 
meanings of the new words are still fresh. Many programs, 
however, are not so arranged as to make it possible to assign 
the lesson at this time, and the assignment must perforce be 
made at the previous recitation period. There is but one 
argument that can be used in favor of assigning the lesson at 
the beginning of the previous day's recitation; namely, that 
by so doing the teacher will run no risk of omitting the assign- 
ment by reason of lack of time. The teacher should have such 
control of herself, as well as of her pupils, that she can arrange 



WHAT THE TEACHER ACTUALLY DOES 191 

her work to suit the time at her disposal. The good teacher 
is able to keep three things in her mind at the same time : the 
class reciting, the other pupils in the room, and the time. The 
teacher who assigns lessons at the beginnings of periods, and 
then spends the recitation on other work, not only loses the 
opportunity to leave the pupils interested in the new lesson, 
but loses the chance to build the new lesson upon the old. 

In classes above the primary, most teachers will find it 
most convenient and almost as effective to assign the new 
lesson at the end of the previous recitation period. By 
calculation, sufficient time can be reserved, and almost all of 
the advantages of a period immediately before the study time, 
can be gained. The teacher whose work we are observing, 
finishes the work on the Tuesday's lesson at least five minutes 
before the expiration of the period. He then says to his class, 
"For tomorrow, we will prepare the lesson entitled, 'The Stone 
in the Road.' You will find it on page 00. It is the story of 
how a poor boy became rich. I think you that will find it very 
interesting. There may be some words in the lesson that are 
new to you. Look at this word." The teacher passes to the 
blackboard and writes the word "castle." He marks the 
sounds, and turning to the class, requires them to sound and 
pronounce the word. He then asks some one for the meaning 
of the word. The pupil probably answers that a castle is 
a big stone house with towers. Another pupil volunteers the 
information that a castle has big iron gates and a ditch around 
it. The teacher asks if people build castles any more, and 
when a negative answer is given, he asks why. The idea then 
comes out that a castle is for the defense of the home, and that 
such elaborate structures are no longer necessary in our civili- 
zation. If possible, the teacher shows to the class a picture 
of a castle, or draws a rough sketch of one on the board. It is 
a lucky thing for teachers who are poor artists, that very poor 



192 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

drawings will serve to start the pupil's imagination. Again, 
it is often possible that there may be in the pupil's knowledge 
some castle-like building. By referring to that building, the 
teacher may build up in the mind of the pupil the concept 
"castle." 

Three things are necessary in the complete teaching of 
a new word: teaching the sound, teaching the spelling, 
and teaching the idea. The act has not been completed 
until all three are accomplished, and the result tested. It is an 
act of injustice to start the pupils at studying a new lesson until 
the new words are taught in their entirety. "Village" is the 
next word. Most children have this concept already, and the 
identifying of a small town with "village" is all that is neces- 
sary, besides the calling of the attention to the spelling of the 
word. If, however, the children live in a large city, the concept 
must be developed in the same way as that in which the concept 
"castle" was developed. Let not the teacher think that the 
pupils have the same stock of concepts he, himself, has. He 
should increase their stock until it approximates his own. He 
handles the remainder of the list in the same way, finding no 
especial difficulty with any of them. 

It may be that the teacher has not included in his list all 
of the new words. To make sure that the preparation is com- 
plete, the teacher finally says, "I think we have gone over all 
the new words, but, to be sure, I want you all now to glance 
through the lesson, and see if there are any words that you still 
do not know. Probably a pupil raises his hand and upon 
being called up, indicates "scalded." The teacher turns, 
writes and marks the word, and the pupil sounds it, immediately 
recognizing it as a word he knows very thoroughly. Another 
suggests "beneath," and the teacher handles it in the same 
way, only this time having to discuss the meaning. This 
process is continued until the teacher is sure that the pupils can 



WHAT THE TEACHER ACTUALLY DOES 193 

read the new lesson. He does not read the lesson to them. 
Certainly not! Nor does he tell them the story. Most cer- 
tainly not! He leaves that value and that pleasure to the 
children. How often children are robbed of the joy and the 
profit of a discovery because some grown person can not control 
his desire to exhibit his superior knowledge. 

The preparation now completed, the teacher tells the pupils 
to read the lesson through three or four times, in order to be 
able to tell the story, and he tells them also that when the time 
for studying reading comes, they will find directions on the 
black-board, and questions, whose answers they must find. 

The teacher must see to it that the assignment of work 
is placed on the board properly. It must be written in 
such a place, and in sufficiently large letters, as to be easily 
visible to all members of the class. It must be on the board 
in plenty of time for the pupils' work. The teacher chooses 
his own time, but, without doubt, uses the time before the pupils 
come in the morning. He knows that after school begins his 
time will be occupied by instruction. He opens his book at the 
lesson, notices the marginal marks and notes, and writes the 
following on the board: 

Reading A, Wednesday. 

Do you think that the miller's boy deserved the gold ? Why ? 

What did the rich man do? 

Why do you think he did it? 

What village have you seen? When? 

What did the village look like? 

Would you like to live in a castle ? Why ? 

Make a list of all the words in the lesson, that you think are 
hard to spell. 

It may seem that the order of questions is wrong, that the 
first question should be the last. The teacher has a good 
reason for the order. He wishes to make sure that the pupils 



194 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

read the whole lesson intelligently before they try to answer 
any of the questions. The questions on the village and the 
castle are asked in order to fix the knowledge of these new 
words. 

The lesson may be prepared by the pupils, either by 
writing out the answers and doing the work asked for, on 
paper, or by thinking over the answers and trying to 
remember them. The writing of the answers causes the 
pupil to do the work somewhat carefully, and ensures his work- 
ing and keeping in some degree of order. These are things that 
are worth gaining. However, there is too much written work 
required of pupils in school. It is so easy to keep children 
busy by requiring much written work, that altogether too much 
is assigned by the teacher. Almost as bad is the common 
neglect to require a proper position while writing. More than 
half of the near sightedness of young people has been caused 
by the teacher's allowing the pupils to put their eyes too close 
to their work. The case can be put even stronger ; more than 
half of our high school pupils are somewhat near sighted, as a 
result of too much written work in an unhealthful position. 
Therefore, let the teacher of reading require the minimum of 
written work and see to it that the work is done in a proper 
position. In the above assignment, the answers to the ques- 
tions may be oral, and the list of words, written. 

The recitation should begin promptly at the appointed 
time. The teacher knows just how many minutes he can 
use for the reading period. We dislike to call it a reading 
recitation, for the American teacher has altogether too much 
reciting, and not nearly enough instruction and drill. This 
reading period will be part recitation, part instruction and 
inspiration, and part drill. It will include an articulation 
exercise, a reading exercise by the pupils, a questioning by the 
teacher, and some instruction relative to this lesson and the 



WHAT THE TEACHER ACTUALLY DOES 195 

lesson to be assigned for the next day. The teacher appor- 
tions for this lesson, three minutes for articulation drill, five 
minutes for the assignment of the next lesson, and the remainder 
of the time for hearing the pupils read, and questioning them 
and talking with them. 

The articulation drill should come first. It will then 
be out of the way, and yet its influence will be felt in the re- 
mainder of the period. The teacher will depend on this in- 
fluence to get good articulation in the reading exercise. He 
knows that he cannot expect the pupil to keep both the thought 
of the selection and articulation in mind at the same time. The 
teacher calls his class to attention. He turns to the black- 
board or chart, where he has written the following exercise : 

F 
Beef muff flap 

fife five trough 

Half his life was spent in grief. 

Can't you find your fan? 

He points to the letter at the top of the exercise. All the 
children give the sound. He is not satisfied. He gives the 
sound himself. They repeat it. He calls upon a pupil who 
seems to be making no effort in giving the sound distinctly. 
The pupil gives the sound alone. The teacher points to the 
first word. All say the word. The teacher is not satisfied. 
He shakes his head and says, "Again." They sound it again. 
He points to the next word, and the next, and so on till the words 
are all sounded at least twice. Then he points to the first 
sentence. This is more difficult, but he secures a good result. 
In the second sentence some difficulty is found in "Can't 
you." The pupils want to say "Can choo." If the work 
goes well, he has a moment left for individual drill. As he 
points to the words the pupil in the first seat says, "beef," the 
second, "fife," the third, "muff," and so on until the time is 



196 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

exhausted. Occasionally the teacher takes time to review the 
past articulation exercise. He has written them out in big 
letters, each one on a sheet of print paper, and has attached 
them to a stick, making a rude but valuable chart. One page 
of this chart contains the diacritical marks, for he keeps the 
knowledge of these marks fresh in the minds of his pupils. 

The articulation drill over, the teacher now has what 
may properly be called a recitation. He calls for the an- 
swers to his questions. He designates the pupil who shall 
answer the first question. This pupil thinks that the boy did 
deserve the gold because he was doing a service for other 
people. All the pupils agree that the answer is correct. Ques- 
tion number two calls out the story in the words of the pupil, 
a good language lesson. Question three brings out a difference 
of opinion. One thinks the rich man wished to teach the 
people a lesson, another thinks he wanted to make them feel 
bad, another thinks he wanted to give away some money. 
After a moment's discussion, all agree that the first answer 
is the best. Some difference is found in the answers to the 
other questions, and the teacher is surprised to find the idea 
of castle still hazy in the minds of some of the class. The 
lists of words hard to spell are read and if time permits, an 
exercise on them is given. Each pupil is allowed to pronounce 
one word and to designate some member of the class to spell it. 

The teacher now takes up the reading exercise. He 
says to the class, "Now let's listen while the story is read. 
Mary, the first paragraph, please." The other pupils shut 
their books, keeping their fingers in the place. Mary rises, 
glances through the paragraph, and reads. She reads well and 
the teacher is satisfied. He does not praise Mary. That 
would direct attention to her ; he wishes attention to be on the 
story. He calls upon John. John rises, opens his book, and 
begins. The teacher stops him. "John, please look through 



WHAT THE TEACHER ACTUALLY DOES 197 

the paragraph before you read ; you can not read well unless you 
know what you are to read." John obeys, and begins again. 
"But — the — people — did — not — love — to — work — 
They — were — " The teacher stops him. He is merely 
naming the words. His attention must be directed to the 
thought. The teacher says, "John, what is said about the 
people?" John tries again. He emphasizes "love" and 
"work," but he runs right along into the next sentence. The 
teacher now asks, "What was it the people didn't love to do?" 
John now has in his mind the one thought, and he reads the 
sentence with expression. 

The teacher varies the work somewhat for the next para- 
graph. He asks, "What are the important things in the 
next paragraph?" The pupils name "poor man," "cow,'' 
"scolded," "walked around it," and "way." He then calls 
on a pupil to read the paragraph, and it is read with good 
expression because the main ideas are now in the minds of 
the pupils. 

In the first sentence of the third paragraph, the attention 
can be called to the thought relations by the questions, "Who 
came along next?" "Where was he going?" If the pupil is 
still in doubt, the teacher, as a final effort, reads the sentence 
with substitutions, thus: "Then as doctor came on his way to 
the store." The pupil now sees the important relations, and 
he reads, "Then a farmer came on his way to the mill" 

In the next paragraph, the question, "How did the day 
pass?" brings out the importance of "so." The contrast 
between "everyone" and "nobody," and "scolded" and 
"touched it," can also be brought out very easily. 

The remainder of the lesson is handled in the same way, the 
teacher continually working through questions and substitu- 
tions, and continually keeping the minds of the pupils upon 
the story. He knows that pupils can give out the thought only 



198 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

when holding the thought in the mind. If time permits, he 
rounds out the lesson by asking some pupil to pass to the front 
of the room, stand, and read the whole lesson. 

OUTLINE OF CHAPTER XVII 

ILLUSTRATIVE LESSON —WHAT THE TEACHER ACTU- 
ALLY DOES 
Planning the work. 
Selection. 
Words and ideas. 
Work. 

Articulation exercise. 
Assigning the lesson. 
The time. 

New words and ideas. 
The work. 
The recitation. 
Articulation drill. 
Recitation proper. 
Report on work. 
Oral reading. 
Questions. 
Substitutions. 
Reading the story. 

FOR REVIEW AND SUGGESTION 

1. When should a teacher plan his work ? 

2. In reading, what does the plan include ? 

3. When should the reading lesson be assigned ? 

4. Give reasons for and against each possible time. 

5. What things should be included in the assignment ? 

6. What things are necessary in the teaching of a new word ? 

7. Should the teacher ever read the lesson to the pupils ? 

8. What advantages has a blackboard assignment ? 

9. What cautions are to be remembered in assigning a lesson on 
the blackboard? 

10. Must the pupils' work be written? 

11. Do schools do too much written work? 



WHAT THE TEACHER ACTUALLY DOES 199 

12. What things should the recitation include? 

93. When should the articulation exercise come ? Why ? 

14. May the teacher ever omit the report on work? 

15. Why does the teacher have the other pupils shut their books 
while one reads ? 

16. What may a teacher do when a poor expression is given ? 



CHAPTER XVIII 

ILLUSTRATIVE LESSON — SILENT READING AND 
EXPRESSION 

Silent Reading is not given sufficient attention by 
teachers. It is really in itself the most important study of the 
elementary school. Not only is it the key by means of which 
the child may enter the treasure house of knowledge, but it is 
the only means by which he may continue his advancement. 
It seems strange that the one operation that can lighten the 
work of the teacher in all the subjects of the elementary and 
secondary schools should be given so little attention by teachers 
after the very beginnings of the work. One needs only to 
think of the part silent reading plays in the subjects of history, 
geography, physiology, grammar, arithmetic, in order to 
realize its transcendant importance. It is by silent reading 
in papers and magazines that one keeps pace with his fellow- 
man in the progress of civilization. It is by silent reading 
also that one must find the beauties and values of literature. 
By oral reading one can give the pleasure to another, but it is 
only by silent absorption that one can possess it for himself. 

Teachers continually overestimate the ability of pupils 
to get the thought from the printed page. Many instances, 
some of them almost ludicrous, could be given as proof. For 
instance, a teacher had given out slips of paper on which were 
printed the flag salute. The children had not only read, but 
committed the words of the salute, "We give our heads and 
our hearts to our country, one country, one language, and one 
flag." The children could repeat the words with the usual 

200 



SILENT READING AND EXPRESSION 201 

motions. The teacher happened to ask, "What do we mean 
by saying that we give our heads to our country?" The chil- 
dren were puzzled. They had not thought of what the words 
mean. Finally one suggested that it means we can cut off 
our heads and give them to the country. This met with some 
objection from the others. Another suggested that we can 
let the enemy shoot bullets into our heads, and so give them 
to our country. Still some objection. One little girl thought 
that it means that we mustn't stick our heads out of the car 
windows. Finally one boy, a big dull fellow, older than the 
others, a left-over from previous classes, volunteers the infor- 
mation that in his opinion, "We don't mean anything, we just 
say it." And the class heartily agreed with him. 

Even our common school songs are not read with intelligence 
by many children. One case, well authenticated, is of a 
school girl who was asked to write the words of "America." 
She wrote the second stanza thus: — 

My native country, thee, 
Land of the noble free, 

Thy name, I love. 
I love thy rots and chills, 
Thy woods and temper pills, 
My heart with ratcher thrills 

Like that above. 

She was really a bright girl. Her explanation proves it. She 
merely had not gotten the thought. She explained that we 
should love not only the pleasant and agreeable things in our 
country, but also the horrid and disagreeable things. As to 
" ratcher," she thought that it sounded something like a disease. 

Very often children have a wrong idea of what reading 
is. They think of the operation of reading in the history as one 
thing and the operation of reading in the reader as another. 
They go to the history to find out certain things for which they 



ESSENTIALS OF READING 



have been told to look, they go to the reader to go over a certain 
amount of print. 

When a teacher finds that his pupils are not devoting atten- 
tion to the thought, he should see that they have the right idea 
of silent reading. One of the best possible exercises for this 
purpose is the assigning of reading lessons from some text- 
book other than the reader. As an illustration, let us suppose 
that the teacher selects the following lesson from the geography 
text: 

ANIMALS OF NORTH AMERICA 

White men first came to North America about four hundred years, 
ago. After some years they brought cows, horses, sheep, and hogs 
from Europe. There are millions of these animals here now. 

Many wild animals live in this continent. Black bears are seen in 
the mountains and in the forests. The white bear lives in the frigid 
zone. It catches fish and seals for its food. This is the largest of the 
bear family. 

The grizzly bear is very fierce. It has long, curved claws. Its home 
is in the western highland. Many of the grizzly bears have been killed, 
and very few are now to be found. 

There are many deer. They feed on grass and tender branches. 
Most of the deer are now found in the forests. The moose is the largest 
of all the deer family. It is common in the forests of the northeast part 
of the continent. 

Years ago there were many bisons in the central plain. Nearly all 
have been killed. A few live in the western highland, but most of them 
are in public parks. They are large and strong. The bison and the ox 
belong to the same family. The bison is often called the buffalo. 

Among the smaller animals are the big-horn or Rocky mountain 
sheep, the wolf, fox, opossum and peccary. The turkey is a native 
of the New World and is still found wild. 

Many fur animals live in the cold parts of the world. They need 
their warm fur where they live. 

Useful animals are found in the waters of the frigid zone. Among 
these are the seal, the whale, and the walrus. The skins of the seal are 
made into clothing. Whales are killed for their oil. The walrus also 
supplies oil. Its teeth are made of ivory. 



SILENT READING AND EXPRESSION 203 

The purpose of the teacher in giving this lesson is to 
train the pupils to glean thought. He has not assigned it in 
advance, for he wishes the work done under his direction. He 
directs them to open the geography at the location of the text. 
He asks, "What are we to read about?" He receives the 
answer, "The animals of North America." The pupils have 
gleaned this thought from the title of the lesson. It should be 
the practice of the reader to find out, if possible, what he is to 
read about, just as the business man often glances at the sig- 
nature of a letter he has received before he reads it. 

The subject ascertained, the teacher directs the class to read 
the first paragraph. The class do this, silently, and close their 
books, keeping their fingers in the place, so that time may not 
be lost in finding the place when reading is to be resumed. The 
teacher asks, "What is this paragraph about?" The first 
time this exercise is used, the children will look at the teacher 
in surprise and in ignorance. It takes but little training to 
start the practice of hunting for the subject of each paragraph. 
In the case of the recitation we are observing, the pupil called 
upon answers, " It is about the white men coming to America 
and what they brought." The teacher then asks, "What is 
there in this paragraph that we must remember? Open your 
books. Read the paragraph again, and then tell me what is 
important enough to be worth remembering." The pupils 
look, as directed, and one answers, "That the white men came 
four hundred years ago, that they brought cows, horses, sheep, 
and hogs, and that there are millions of these here now." 

"Very good," says the teacher, "now read the second para- 
graph silently, and tell me what it is about." The children 
read the paragraph. "It is about wild animals," one says. 
"No," says another, "it is about bears." The class decides 
that the paragraph is really a "bear" paragraph, because so 
much of it is about bears. " What is important enough to be 



204 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

remembered?" "Where the white bear lives, and what it 
eats," says one. "And its size," says another. "Yes," says 
the teacher, " and we must also remember what it says about 
the black bear's home." "What is the first paragraph about, 
children?" "About the animals of North America." "What 
is the second paragraph about?" "About bears." "What 
does the first paragraph tell about the animals of North Amer- 
ica?" A pupil answers. "What does the second paragraph 
tell about bears?" Another pupil answers. 

"Read the third paragraph." The paragraph is read. 
"What is it about?" The pupil asked, answers. "What 
shall we remember of it?" "What is the first paragraph 
about ? " The second ? " " The third ? " " What shall we re- 
member of the first ? " "Of the second?" "Of the third?" 

"Now read the fourth paragraph." " Do you know what a 
moose is ?" asks the teacher. "A deer," answers a boy. "Are 
all deer moose?" "No," is the answer, "a moose has big, 
long horns, kind of wide." "Do you know of any other dif- 
ference?" "Well, they're bigger, and I think they have 
longer hair." "Did you ever see one?" "No." "Did you 
ever see a picture of one ? " "Yes." No further information 
is forthcoming from the pupils, and the teacher shows the 
children a picture of a moose, and describes it briefly, doing 
her best to build up in the minds of the children the concept 
of "moose." 

The teacher handles the remainder of the lesson in the same 
way. The fifth paragraph is found to be about bison, the 
sixth about the smaller animals, the seventh about fur animals, 
and the eighth about the sea animals. The teacher continually 
brings up the contents of the earlier paragraphs, and sees to 
it that the new knowledge is built upon the old. 

After the whole selection has been covered in this careful 
way, the teacher requires the pupils to make an outline of the 



SILENT READING AND EXPRESSION 205 

whole lesson. They can now answer the question, "What is 
worth remembering in what we have read?" With the assis- 
tance of the teacher, they have read and have gotten the pith 
of the material. 

Older readers, when using their own books, may be 
trained to place the subjects of paragraphs in the mar- 
gins of their books. Such a practice compels close attention 
to the thought, and careful analysis of the thought. A book 
so read becomes an intimate acquaintance of the one reading 
it, one whose influence will continue for years. 

Assignments that direct or compel attention to the 
thought are of great value in training the pupils to glean 
the thought. Among such assignments may be mentioned 
the Blackboard Question Assignment. The teacher pre- 
pares questions that cover the important things in the lesson, 
places the questions on the blackboard, and asks the pupils to 
prepare answers. The task is easy, but the element of analyz- 
ing the thought in order to find what is important is lacking. 
This work the teacher does when he makes out the questions. 

Another assignment is the familiar Topical Assignment, 
where the teacher places an outline of the lesson on the board 
and asks the pupils to be ready to recite on each topic. This 
is a valuable exercise, though the element of analysis is lacking, 
that work being performed by the teacher. It is not a hard 
task for the pupils, and the results are good in the memory way. 

The Reproduction Assignment is also familiar to most 
teachers. The pupils are directed to read the lesson carefully 
a number of times, and to write it out in their own words, either 
a paragraph at a time, or the whole lesson at once. This 
method of assignment ensures a valuable language lesson as 
well as careful attention to the thought. 

A valuable assignment is the Original Question Assign- 
ment. The teacher directs the class to read the lesson care- 



206 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

fully and to write questions that cover the important things 
in the lesson. These questions are to be used in the recita- 
tion, a pupil reading a question and the teacher calling upon 
some one to answer it, or allowing the pupil to designate the 
person who shall answer. This assignment gives to the pupil 
the valuable task of finding the important things, but is more 
difficult than the preceding assignment. 

The Quiz Assignment is very useful. The pupils are told 
to read the lesson so carefully, and to think of it so carefully, 
that they can answer any question the teacher may ask about 
the lesson. While this is one of the most difficult tasks to set 
the pupil, it is a valuable one, for all of his after reading must 
be done without an exact knowledge of what he may be ex- 
pected to know. 

Good expression in reading depends in the greater part 
upon the efficiency of the silent reading that should pre- 
cede. The other thing of importance is the success of the 
teacher in keeping the mind of the reader upon the thought 
that he has gleaned. If the silent reading has been good, the 
chances are all in favor of good expression. If the silent 
reading has been poor, the oral reading will certainly be poor. 
It can not be otherwise. Let us notice how a teacher may 
expect to gain good expression, in the following selection: 

Half a league, half a league, 
Half a league onward, 
All in the valley of death 

Rode the six hundred. 
"Forward the light brigade! 
Charge for the guns!" he said; 
Into the valley of death 

Rode the six hundred. 

"Forward the Light Brigade!" 
Was there a man dismayed ? 



SILENT READING AND EXPRESSION 207 

Not though the soldiers knew 

Some one had blundered; 
Theirs not to make reply, 
Theirs not to reason why, 
Theirs but to do and die; 
Into the valley of death 

Rode the six hundred. 

Cannon to right of them, 
Cannon to left of them, 
Cannon in front of them 

Volleyed and thundered; 
Stormed at with shot and shell, 
Boldly they rode and well, 
Into the jaws of death, 
Into the mouth of hell 

Rode the six hundred. 

Flashed all their sabers bare, 
Flashed as they turned in air 
Sabring the gunners there, 
Charging an army, while 

All the world wondered. 
Plunged in the battery smoke, 
Right through the line they broke; 
Cassack and Russian 
Reeled from the saber-stroke — 

Shattered and sundered, 
Then they rode back, but not — 

Not the six hundred. 

Cannon to right of them, 
Cannon to left of them, 
Cannon behind them 

Volleyed and thundered; 
Stormed at with shot and shell, 
While horse and hero fell, 
They that had fought so well, 
Came through the jaws of death, 
Back from the mouth of hell, 



208 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

All that was left of them, 
Left of six hundred. 

When can their glory fade ? 
Oh, the wild charge they made! 

All the world wondered. 
Honor the charge they made, 
Honor the light brigade, 

Noble six hundred. 

We assume that the teacher knows the importance of the 
following things in securing expression, and that he expects to 
see that each element is properly secured. He will see that 
he has selected the (i) right material, and that he has made 
a (2) careful assignment. He has already made sure that 
the pupil has had (3) good models, and he will now see to it 
that the pupil is in the (4) right mental attitude, that he 
(5) gets the thought, and (6) gets the emotion. During 
the exercise of oral reading itself, he will strive to secure good 
expression by (7) the use of questions, (8) the use of substi- 
tutions, (9) the use of the child's experience, (10) the use 
of the child's imagination. 

The teacher has thought over the selection, the advancement 
and ability of the class, and the purpose to be attained by this 
lesson. He has decided that this lesson is of the right degree 
of difficulty and of the proper length. He has therefore at- 
tended to the matter of " right material." 

The second matter, " careful assignment," he has 
accomplished by assigning the following work: 

Read the lesson carefully. 

Be able to tell the story in your own words. 

Be able to tell what each paragraph is about. 

Why is the action of the Light Brigade to be admired ? 

Why did the poet write of this incident ? 

Does this poem make you feel excited or sad ? What do you keep 
thinking of as you read ? 



SILENT READING AND EXPRESSION 209 

The third matter of importance, the furnishing of " good 
models " of reading, the teacher has attained by reading to 
his pupils. He has never read to them what he does not 
understand and appreciate. He has never read to them with- 
out first preparing himself to read what he has selected. As a 
consequence, the pupils have heard good reading, and they 
know when reading is good. 

The fourth matter, "the right mental attitude," the 
teacher tries to gain in two ways. He wants the right attitude 
toward the class. To gain this he avoids calling attention to 
anything other than the thought. Without attracting atten- 
tion, he removes all obstacles to attention. He asks that books 
be closed while a pupil is reading, he tries in every way he can 
invent to make the reader feel the importance of giving expres- 
sion to the thought. 

The teacher tries also to bring the pupil into the right mental 
attitude toward the selection. In the assignment of the lesson 
he has had this in mind. He has tried to ask such questions 
as will lead the pupils to see that this is not a battle song or a 
story of adventure. It is rather a dirge. He does not want 
them to try to imitate the noise of the cannon or suggest the 
quick flashes of the sabers. He wants them to feel and express 
the sadness of the catastrophe. 

Cannon to right of them, 
Cannon to left of them, 
Cannon behind them 
Volleyed and thundered; 

The asking and the answering of these questions before the 
oral reading is begun, puts the pupils into the right mental 
attitude toward the selection. 

The fifth thing, "getting the thought," the teacher has 
in mind all the time. He has given a direction, "Be able to 
tell what each paragraph is about," that will make every pupil 



210 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

know the contents of the poem. By the "use of questions " 
and "the use of substitutions " (see chapter III) he expects 
to keep the attention on the thought. By this means he 
expects to get the correct time, emphasis and inflection. For 
instance, in regard to time, no one can read the first stanza 
rapidly, who is thinking of what a half league means when it 
is under the concentrated fire of the cannon of an army. Every 
step means the death of brave men, Englishmen. What must 
a half league mean! 

" Forward the light brigade! 
Charge for the guns! " he said; 

Ah, we can not read that rapidly, when we realize that there 
was the blunder, when we think of the horrible tragedy that 
followed those words. After one has read those two lines, he 
pauses; he must pause. For a moment his mind must dwell 
on the thought of how such an order would be received. But 
these men hesitated not, discussed not, reasoned not. Just an 
instant's silence; then 

Into the valley of death 
Rode the six hundred. 

The teacher need not worry ; if the thought is right, the rapidity 
of the reading will be right. 

Emphasis also will be right if the thought is right. 
The pupils have found that the first paragraph tells of the 
command ; the second, of the blunder ; the third, of the charge ; 
the fourth, of the fight; the fifth, of the return; the sixth, of 
the glory of the deed. With this in mind, the pupil feels that 
the important things in the second stanza are indicated in the 
words "dismayed," "blundered," "theirs," "reply," "why," 
"do," "die." 

Inflection will be right if the thought is right and held 
in the mind while the reader speaks. Take the fourth 



SILENT READING AND EXPRESSION 211 

stanza. The big thing of the first sentence, the climax, toward 
which the preceding clauses point, is "charging an army." 
This is so big a thought that it fills the mind, the voice drops, 
almost as if this were the end of the sentence; and the re- 
mainder of the words are then added. So the reader gives the 
correct inflection, the inflection demanded by the " momentary- 
completeness " of the thought. The reader doesn't think of 
momentary completeness. Far from it. He is thinking of 
what a tremendous thing that Light Brigade did. 

By " getting the emotion " the teacher expects to 
secure a requisite amount of force in the reading, as well 
as the proper quality of voice. He expects to do this by 
the "use of the child's experience," or by the " use of the child's 
imagination." He uses the experience, if possible, then the 
imagination. "Did you ever see a cannon?" he asks. "A 
cannon ball?" "Can you imagine what would be the effect 
of such a ball filled with powder and pieces of iron, exploding 
in the midst of a group of horsemen?" "Can you imagine 
six hundred horsemen riding through a valley, and up the 
height at the end of the valley, all the time being shot at by 
hundreds of cannon posted all along the hills on both sides of 
the valley and on the height at the end?" "What do you 
think of the bravery and loyalty of men that will do a thing 
like that when they know that there can be no hope of gaining 
or holding the position?" 

Such would be the way of getting good expression in 
the selections given; careful and successful silent reading, 
followed by no less careful oral work, the teacher all the 
time directing, training and inspiring, working all the 
time through the thought and through the emotion. 



fi2 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

OUTLINE OF CHAPTER XVIII 

ILLUSTRATIVE LESSON — SILENT READING AND EXPRES- 
SION 
Importance of silent reading. 
Overestimating ability of pupils to glean thought. 
Cultivating the right idea of reading. 
Lesson — "Animals of North America." 
Thought assignments. 

Black-board questions. 

The topical assignment. 

The reproduction. 

Original questions. 

The quiz. 
Expression built on silent reading. 
Lesson — "The Charge of the Light Brigade." 
How the teacher expects to secure good expression. 

Right material. 

Careful assignment. 

Good models. 

Right mental attitude. 

Getting the thought. 

Getting the emotion. 

Use of the child's experience. 

Use of the child's imagination. 

FOR REVIEW AND SUGGESTION 
i. Why is silent reading important? 

2. What studies in school are not made easier by efficient silent 
reading? Prove your answer. 

3. Can you give an instance of a teacher's overestimating the 
ability of pupils to glean thought ? 

4. Can you give an instance of children having a wrong idea of 
what reading is? 

5. Why may a reading lesson from the geography or history be valu- 
able? 

6. How should such a lesson be handled ? 

7. Why so much repetition? 

8. Why make an outline ? 



SILENT READING AND EXPRESSION 213 

9. What kind of assignments are particularly valuable? 

10. Name and describe five different kind of assignments. 

11. Give the advantages and disadvantages of each. 

12. Upon what does good expression depend most of all? 

13. What ten things are of importance in securing good expression? 

14. How does the teacher attend to these ten things in the illustrative 
lesson? 



PART IV 
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 



CHAPTER XIX 

ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 

The following lessons illustrate just how a teacher may 
plan the reading work to give it a natural appeal to pupils. 
These lessons recognize the fact that there are four funda- 
mental steps in the universal method of teaching. First, 
the mind of the learner must be led to desire to know the 
message. Until the mind is alert and anxious to know, no 
effective teaching can take place. Second, the mind must 
search the selection for truth. Third, the mind must 
follow some definite program of interpretation in the light 
of experience. Fourth, the mind must acquire the habit 
of interpreting similar selections in order to broaden and 
deepen its appreciation of truth. 

It is obviously unwise for a teacher to attempt to do, in 
a single recitation, all the things suggested in any one 
study. The grade of work, the character of the class, the 
time available, and the difficulty of the selection, should 
determine the manner of procedure. The teacher should 
feel free to vary the suggested plans of study in order to 
adapt them to local conditions. 

Following the plan of these "Studies," the student- 
teacher should prepare a number of complete lesson plans, 
using as a basis selections from any good school readers. 



217 



THE CIRCUS-DAY PARADE 
"HPHE Circus is coming!" How this glad 
shout filled all hearts with joy! There 
were the colored "handbills," the free picture 
books and the great pictures on the billboards! 
How the boys turned somersaults, put up 
trapezes, and rode the horses bareback in the 
pasture! At last the glad day came. We saw 
great crowds, the grand band-wagon, the ele- 
phants, the ponies, the fine lady riders, and the 
funny clowns with trick mules. There was the 
wild confusion of squawkers, red balloons, pop- 
corn venders and crying babies. It was really 
circus-day, and we were watching the parade! 

In Riley's "The Circus-Day Parade," all the 
circus joys are called to mind. The poet never 
forgot that he was once a boy. His dearest 
wish was to make children happy, and this is one 
of a large number of poems he wrote to give them 
pleasure. 

THE CIRCUS-DAY PARADE * 

Oh! the circus-day parade! How the ougles 

played and played! 
And how the glossy horses tossed their flossy 

manes and neighed, 

* From the Biographical Edition of the Complete Works of James Whitcomb 
Riley, copyright 1913, and used by special permission of the publishers, The Bobbs- 
Merrill Company. 

2l8 



THE CIRCUS-DAY PARADE 219 

As the rattle and the rime of the tenor-drum- 
mer's time 

Filled all the hungry hearts of us with melody 
sublime ! 

How the grand band-wagon shone with a 

splendor all its own, 
And glittered with a glory that our dreams had 

never known! 
And how the boys behind, high and low of every 

kind, 
Marched in unconscious capture, with a rapture 

undefined ! 

How the horsemen, two and two, with their 

plumes of white and blue 
And crimson, gold and purple, nodding by at me 

and you, 
Waved the banners that they bore, as the 

knights in days of yore, 
Till our glad eyes gleamed and glistened like the 

spangles that they wore! 

How the graceless-graceful stride of the elephant 

was eyed, 
And the capers of the little horse that cantered 

at his side! 
How the shambling camels, tame to the plaudits 

of their fame, 
With listless eyes came silent, masticating as 

they came. 



220 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

How the cages jolted past, with each wagon 

battened fast, 
And the mystery within it only hinted of at last 
From the little grated square in the rear, and 

nosing there 
The snout of some strange animal that sniffed 

the outer air! 

And, last of all, the clown, making mirth for all 
the town, 

With his lips curved ever upward and his eye- 
brows ever down, 

And his chief attention paid to the little mule 
that played 

A tattoo on the dashboard with his heels, in the 
parade. 

Oh! the circus-day parade! How the bugles 
played and played! 

And how the glossy horses tossed their flossy 
manes and neighed, 

As the rattle and the rime of the tenor-drum- 
mer's time 

Filled all the hungry hearts of us with melody 
sublime. — James Whitcomb Riley. 

NOTES 
| 1. James Whitcomb Riley was born at Greenfield, 

Indiana, October 7, 1853. He went to the home 
| school until he was sixteen. He first began work as 

a sign painter. For a while he traveled from place 



THE CIRCUS-DAY PARADE 221 

to place painting signs. Then he joined a traveling 
company which gave minstrel shows and sold 
medicine. Later he wrote for the Indianapolis 
Journal, then traveled as a lecturer reading his own 
poems. He has written many beautiful poems and 
stories. His child rhymes are favorites everywhere. 

2. Mel' 6 dy sub-lime' . Heavenly music. 

3. Unconscious capture (un-kon' shus) . The boys were 

so taken with the music and glitter that they lost 
thought of all else. 

4. Rap'ture un-de-flned' . Joy which could not be ex- 

plained. 

5. Battened (bat' 'nd). Closed tightly with boards. 

6. Played a tat-too. The little mule struck the dashboard 

with his heels as if beating a drum. 

7. Tame to the plaudits of their fame. Paying no attention 

to those who admired and praised them. 

8. Pronounce correctly, give meanings of, and use in 

sentences of your own: pd-rade', bugles, flos'sy, 
glos'sy, neighed (nad), rime, tenor-drummer 
(ten'er drum'er), splen'dor (der), glittered (glit'erd), 
plumes, crimson (krim'z'n), pur'ple, knights (nltz), 
glistened (glist' 'nd), spangles (span'g'lz), elephant 
(el'e font), ca/pers, cantered (can'terd), sham'bling, 
plaudits (plod'its), list'less, mas-ti-cat'ing, mys'ter-y, 
curved (curv' 'd). 

9. Read slowly and distinctly : 

(a) How the bugles played and played ! 

(6) How the glossy horses tossed their flossy manes 

and neighed, 
(c) And how the boys behind, high and low of every 

kind, 
Marched in unconscious capture, with a 

rapture undefined! 



222 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

(d) How the cages jolted past, with each wagon 

battened fast. 

(e) And his chief attention paid to the little mule 

that played 
A tattoo on the dashboard with his heels, in 
the parade. 

EXERCISES 

1. What are the most interesting things in the circus- 

day parade? 

2. Explain "hungry hearts"? 

3. What was the "melody sublime"? 

4. Describe the band wagon. , 

5. Tell how the boys felt as they marched behind. 

6. How were they captured? 

7. Tell how the horsemen looked to the boys. 

8. Tell of the animals in the parade. 

9. Explain "tame to the plaudits of their fame." 

10. What was the mystery about each wagon? 

11. What hinted of what was in the closed wagons? 

12. Describe the clown and his mule. 

13. Tell of the most interesting things you have seen at 

the circus. 

ADDITIONAL READINGS 

Riley: The Old Swimming Hole. No Boy Knows. The Raggedy-Man. 

Hogg: A Boy's Song. 

White: Court of Boyville. 

Whittier: The Barefoot Boy. 

Longfellow: The Children's Hour. 

Warner: Being a Boy. 

Andersen: The Naughty Boy. 

Van Dyke: The Ruby Crowned Knight. 

Child: The Boy's Heaven. 



SHARP WITS 

TTERE is the story of how a wise old goat 
saved himself by using his wits. He found 
himself in a fierce lion's den with the lion ready 
to eat him. Later both a lion and a jackal 
agreed to kill and eat him. How his sharp 
wits saved him from harm in both cases is told 
in this old folk-tale. 

SHARP WITS 

One day a shrewd old goat was hunting in 
the mountains a long way from home, when 
there came up a sudden storm. A large open- 
ing in the cliffs near by promised shelter. Pass- 
ing through the opening, he found himself in 
a small, dry cave. 

It was a minute or two before his eyes grew 
used to the dim light, so that he could see where 
he was. Then he was horrified to see the floor 
covered with the bones of animals, and he was 
not long in deciding that he had found his way 
into a lion's den! Turning to escape at once, 
he was stopped by a deep roar. The master of 
the house was coming, driven home by the 
storm. 

223 



224 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

"My horns, however sharp, will be of no 
help against this fierce monster," thought the 
goat. "I must try what sharp wits can do. " 

In stalked the lion, hungry and surly. See- 
ing the goat, he paused, surprised, and then 
crouched to spring upon him. 

"Oh, how lucky I am!" exclaimed the goat. 

"What!" roared the lion, astonished. "You 
mean how lucky I am; for it is indeed great 
luck that sends a fat goat into my very den 
when I am hungry." 

"No," said the goat, "I mean that I am 
lucky. I am a lion hunter, and it is great luck 
that sends me a lion just when my horns were 
aching for exercise — whoop!" and the goat 
danced about in glee. 

"A long- whiskered old goat a lion hunter? 
Nonsense! I never heard of such a thing." 

"Oh, you haven't heard of everything ! May- 
be you never before did meet a lion-killing goat. 
You certainly will not live to see another one. 
You can't escape. This week has been a little 
dull for me so far, as I have killed only four 
lions. You will make the fifth one. Prepare 
to die this very instant!" 

The goat reared on his hind legs, shook his 
head till his long beard streamed out wildly; 
then, dropping on all fours, he lowered his horns 
and rushed fiercely at the amazed lion. 



SHARP WITS 225 



Frightened by the bold speech and unexpected 
attack, the great beast turned and fled. As 
soon as he had gone, the goat slipped out of 
the cave, and ran in the opposite direction as 
fast as his legs could carry him. 

The lion had not gone far when he met a 
jackal. To him he told the story of his late 
meeting with the wonderful lion-killing goat 
that had attacked him so fiercely. 

" You say he was a long-whiskered, gray -eyed 
old goat?" asked the jackal. "Why, I know 
him. And he called himself a lion killer? Ha! 
ha! ha! Why, he couldn't kill a half -grown 
kitten ! He scared you with his big talk. Hunt 
him up and kill him. I will eat him if you 
don't want him!" 

Back they hurried to the cave, but the goat 
was gone. Sniffing around among the rocks, 
they soon found his trail, and away they went 
in pursuit. The old goat, glancing back, caught 
sight of them, and, knowing that they would 
overtake him in a few minutes, feared that all 
was lost. 

But he took heart and said to himself: "I 
can't run away from them and I can't fight 
them. All I can do is to try again the power of 
sharp wits." Facing about, he ran boldly 
toward his pursuers. 

"Ha, jackal!" he called in angry tones, 



226 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

"How is this? I will discharge you if you don't 
do better. You agreed to decoy three lions, 
and you have brought only one — and a small 
one at that. Start off for the other two at 
once! Stop! wait a minute till I kill this fel- 
low." 

As he finished speaking, old Billy rushed 
headlong at the lion. The great beast was 
again stricken with sudden fright. He gave an 
angry snap at the jackal and bounded down the 
valley. The cowardly jackal sneaked away, 
while the old goat trotted quietly home. — 
A Hindu Tale. 

NOTES 

1. Compare the goat and the lion. Which is stronger? 

Why is the lion called "the king of beasts"? 

2. Tell how boys or girls have done more work or have 

escaped danger by using their wits. 

3. Have the children dramatize this. Let them choose 

the ones who shall be the lion, the goat, and the 
jackal, and arrange the plan of acting the story. 

4. Decoy (de koi'). To lead by a trick, to entice. 

5. Pronounce correctly, give meanings of, and use in 

sentences of your own : shrewd (shrood) , hor'ri-fied 
(fid), de-cld'ing, es-cape', stalked (stokt), crouched 
(kroucht), hick'y, m'stdnt, amazed (d-mazd), jackal 
jak'ol) , pursuit (pwr-siit') , strfck'en, sneaked (snekt) . 

6. Read slowly and distinctly : 

(a) I must try what sharp wits can do. 

(6) A long- whiskered old goat a lion hunter? 



SHARP WITS 227 



(c) Prepare to die this very instant! 

(d) I can't run away from them and I can't fight 

them. 

(e) You agreed to decoy three lions, and you have 

brought only one — and a small one at that. 

EXERCISES 

1. Where did the old goat go to get out of the storm? 

2. What did he find the place to be? 

3. What did he hear as he tried to escape? 

4. What did he decide to do? 

5. What did the lion do when he saw the goat? 

6. What did the goat say? 

7. Why was the lion surprised? 

8. What did the goat then say and do? 

9. What did the lion do? 

10. What did the lion and jackal decide to do? 

11. By what trick did the goat again save himself? 

ADDITIONAL READINGS 

Midler: A Grizzly's Sly Little Joke. 

^Esop : The Fox and the Wolf. The Eagle and the Fox. The Fox and 

the Goat. The Fox in the Well. The Goat and the Lion. 
Richahds: Tables Turned. 

Homer: Famous Wooden Horse — from the Odyssey. 
Madame de Segur: A Donkey Race. 
Harris: The Wonderful Tar Baby. 
Trowbridge: The Fox in the Well. 
Harrison: Hans and the Four Great Giants. 



KING SOLOMON AND THE 
TWO MOTHERS 

TN old times, the kings acted as judges and 
decided all disputes between the people. 
What the king said was law. If a king were 
not wise and good, the people could not get 
justice. Solomon, King of Israel, was known 
as the wisest man that ever lived. The story 
of his wisdom has come down to us. In the 
following story, two women claimed to be 
mothers of the same child. The clever way in 
which the wise King Solomon decided who was 
the real mother is told. 

KING SOLOMON AND THE 
TWO MOTHERS 

Once upon a time, two mothers lived together 
with their two tiny babies. One morning, one 
of the little children was found dead. Both 
mothers now claimed the living child as her 
own. They disputed long and loud. The 
neighbors were drawn to the house by the angry 
words. It seemed impossible to tell who was 
the mother of the living child. 

At last, both mothers decided to go to King 
228 



KING SOLOMON AND THE TWO MOTHERS 229 

1 
Solomon so that he could hear their stories and 

settle the dispute. 

"The living is my son, and the dead is thy 
son," said the one. 

"Nay, but the dead is thy son, and the living 
is my son," said the other. Thus they spoke 
before the king. 

Each told her story, and each made so clever 
a case that none of the people who stood by 
could decide which of the women was the true 
mother. For a time, the king himself was 
perplexed, for from their stories, he could not 
decide. 

But the wise king could read the heart of a 
mother. He said, "One says, 'This is my son 
that liveth and thy son is the dead'; the other 
says, ' Nay, but thy son is the dead, and my son 
is the living.' " 

Then commanded King Solomon, "Bring me 
a sword," and they brought a sword before the 
king. 

And the king said, "Divide the living child in 
two, and give half to the one, and half to the 
other." 

One of the women answered, "Yea, great 
King, if I may not have the child, give me one 
half; for I would not that this other woman 
should have him." 

But the other fell upon her knee and begged 



2 3 o ESSENTIALS OF READING 

the king saying, "O King, I pray thee, harm 
not the child. If I may not take him, give this 
woman the living child, but in no wise slay it." 
Then the king answered and said, "Give her 
the living child, and in no wise slay it; for she is 
the true mother." — Retold from the Bible. 

NOTES 

1. This story is taken from i Kings iii, 16-28. King 

Solomon ruled Israel from 977 B.C. to 937 B.C. See 
i Kings, i-xi and n Chronicles i-ix. 

2. Tell of other clever decisions you have known. 

3. Each made so clever a case. Each told the story so 

well that it seemed true. 

4. In no wise. By no means. 

5. Pronounce distinctly, give meanings of as here used, 

and use in sentences of your own: claimed (clam'd), 
dis ptit'ed, im-pos'si-ble, de cid'Sd, settle (set'l), 
perplexed (per plekst'), com mand'£d, sw6rd, 
di vide', begged (beg'd). 

6. Pronunciation and articulation drill. Read slowly 

and distinctly: 

(a) The living is my son, and the dead is thy son. 

(6) The king himself was perplexed. 

(c) And they brought a sword before the king. 

(d) Divide the living child in two. 

(e) Give her the living child, and in no wise slay it. 

EXERCISES 

1. What was the cause of the dispute? 

2. Why did it seem impossible to tell who was the true 

mother? 

3. How did they decide to hare the dispute settled? 



KING SOLOMON AND THE TWO MOTHERS 231 

4. What did each say to the king? 

5. Why was the king perplexed? 

6. What command did the king now give? 

7. Why did he tell them to divide the child? 

8. What answer did the first woman make? 

9. What answer did the second woman make? 

10. What was Solomon's decision? 

11. How can you tell whether or not the decision was 

right? 

ADDITIONAL READINGS 

JiIsop: The Partial Judge. Socrates and His Friends. The Thief and 

the Boy. 
MacDonald : Baby. 
Riley: Babyhood. 

Grimm Brothers: Rumpel-Stilts-Kin. 

Andersen: The Princess on the Pea. The Story of a Mother. 
Longfellow: The Children. 
Bro^vning: Pied Piper of Hamlin. 
Isaacs: When Solomon Was King. 



LIFE 

Forenoon and afternoon and night, — forenoon, 
And afternoon, and night, — forenoon, and — 

what! 
The empty song repeats itself. No more? 
Yea, that is life. Make this forenoon sublime, 
This afternoon a psalm, this night a prayer, 
And Time is conquered and thy crown is won. 

— Edward Rowland Sill. 



DANIEL WEBSTER'S FIRST CASE 

T^ANIEL WEBSTER was born on a farm in 

*~" Salisbury Township, New Hampshire, in 
1782. His father was a backwoods farmer who 
had earlier been a hunter and soldier. Daniel 
owed his education to his mother, who was a cul- 
tured woman, proud of her children, and am- 
bitious for their success. The following incident 
occurred when Daniel was only twelve years of 
age. After he had become a great lawyer and 
America's foremost statesman and orator, his 
admirers pointed proudly back to this incident 
as showing the wonderful promise of the young 
man, and proudly referred to this as his "first 
case." 

DANIEL WEBSTER'S FIRST CASE 

Mr. Webster, Daniel's father, was a farmer. He 
had a fine garden of which he was justly proud. 
In some way a woodchuck got into the garden and 
destroyed many plants. The woodchuck came 
again and again, until at last Daniel and his brother 
Ezekiel resolved to set a trap for him. 

They did so, and several mornings later they 
found that the woodchuck had been caught. Ezekiel 
proposed to kill the animal at once, and so put an 
end to all further trouble with him. Daniel, how- 

232 



DANIEL WEBSTER'S FIRST CASE 233 

ever, looked with pity upon the poor captive and 
proposed to set him free. 

The brothers talked over the matter for some 
time, but they could not seem to agree. They de- 
cided to appeal to their father and to follow his 
advice. 

Mr. Webster heard their story and then said: 
"Well, boys, let us try the case. The woodchuck 
here is a prisoner. Daniel, you shall be his lawyer 
and speak for him. Ezekiel, you shall speak against 
him. I will act as judge." 

Ezekiel opened the case. He spoke strongly 
against the poor woodchuck. 

"This fellow is a dangerous criminal. He stole 
into our garden and did much damage. If he is 
set free, he will return and repeat the crime. Why 
did we take the trouble to set a trap for him? Let 
us kill him at once. His skin is of some value, and 
will repay in part the damage he has done." 

The boy had made a fine speech, and his father 
was proud of him. 

Turning to Daniel, Mr. Webster said: "Now, 
Daniel, it is your turn to speak. You have heard 
Ezekiel speak against the prisoner. What have you 
to say in his defense?" 

Daniel rose to speak. It was his first case. He 
saw at once what his father thought of Ezekiel's 
speech. Suddenly he chanced to glance at the poor 
woodchuck trembling with fear in the trap. 

The boy's eyes grew moist and his voice trembled 
with feeling as he spoke. 



234 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

"God made the woodcliuck to enjoy the free life 
of the fields and the woods. This poor animal has 
as much right to life as we have. He is not a de- 
structive animal like the fox or the wolf. 

"What crime has he committed? He has simply 
eaten a few vegetables from our garden. Have 
we not enough and to spare? 

"Besides, the poor fellow has simply followed his 
nature; he has destroyed nothing except what little 
he needed to eat. He knows no better. Why should 
we kill him? Many men do wrong and yet they 
know the difference between right and wrong. 

"Possibly the woodchuck thinks as much of his 
life as we do of ours. 

"Let us be merciful to him; then we may expect 
mercy toward ourselves. God gave the woodchuck 
his life. He only has the right to take life away." 

As the boy spoke his voice was strong and yet 
tender, and his face was full of pity. The tears 
fell from Mr. Webster's eyes as he listened to the 
boy's speech. 

Springing from his chair, he cried, "Zeke! Zeke! 
let that woodchuck go!" 

Daniel Webster had won his first case. 

NOTES 

1. Look up all you can about the woodchuck. See the picture of the 

woodchuck, or ground-hog, on page 92. 

2. Be able to give a short sketch of the life of Webster. 

3. Be able to give synonyms for, or to explain the meanings of, the 

following words: resolved, proposed, capture, appeal, prisoner, 
criminal, damage, defense, case, destructive, merciful. 



DANIEL WEBSTER'S FIRST CASE 235 



EXERCISES 

1. Tell the circumstances under which Daniel Webster was brought up. 

2. How much sympathy for woodchucks ought we to expect the average 

farmer in New England to have? Why? 

3. Why had the boys caught the woodchuck? 

4. What did each boy propose to do with the woodchuck? 

5. What caused them to appeal to their father to settle the dispute? 

6. What manner of deciding the difficulty did the father propose? 

7. What five points do you find in Ezekiel's argument against the 

woodchuck? 

8. What impression did this speech make on the father? 

9. In what manner did Daniel make his plea? 

10. What are the strongest points Daniel made in favor of the wood- 

chuck? 

11. What effect did this plea have on Mr. Webster? 

12. What was the father's decision as judge? 

13. From what you know of woodchucks, and from the arguments here 

given, was the decision just? 

14. Just what characteristics of Daniel are shown in this incident? 



ADDITIONAL READINGS 

Holland: The High Court of Inquiry. 
Webster: Bunker Hill Oration. Reply to Hayne. 
Hapgood: Daniel Webster. 
The Greatness of " Dan'l Gregg." 



God's livery is a very plain one; but its wearers 
have good reason to be content. If it have not so 
much gold lace about it as Satan's, it keeps out foul 
weather better, and is besides a great deal cheaper. 

— James Russell Lowell. 



w 



FOUR-LEAF CLOVER 

HO has not hunted for, and found, the 
lucky four-leaf clover! That thrill 
of true delight which comes to every faithful 
searching heart is best interpreted in Mrs. 
Ella Higginson's delicate gem, "Four-Leaf 
Clover." No other little gem of the language 
has been more widely appreciated and more 
warmly loved. The poem was written in 1890, 
and was first published in "Fact and Fancy," 
a department for women conducted by the 
promising young writer in the old "West 
Shore" of Portland, Oregon. Since then, the 
poem has been set to music by at least fifty 
composers. In England, Charles Willeby's set- 
ting was taken up by Ada Crossley, the lead- 
ing contralto, and made a popular success. 
Calve sings this beautiful song; and it is loved 
by musicians, poets, teachers, and children 
everywhere. 

The author proudly claims Kansas as her 
birth-state, although when a mere infant she 
moved with her people out to the western 
coast. At the time the poem was written, she 
was young and very poor, but determined to 
succeed. Her contributions for "Fact and 

236 



FOUR-LEAF CLOVER 237 

1 

Fancy" constituted her first regular literary- 
work. As time for writing was exceedingly 
limited, sore discouragement was often hers. 
The rich, sweet message and melody of the 
poem is interpreted in a most delicate way in 
the author's own words. She says: 

"On my way to the post-office, on one of 
my darkest days, I passed an old orchard of 
cherry trees, and up sprang a four-leaf clover 
beneath my feet, speaking a message of — well, 
I there and then put it to words, so you know 
what it was." 

This sweet message has inspired grateful 
hearts everywhere, and has thrilled all with a 
loftier vision of life and luck and love. 

FOUR-LEAF CLOVER 1 

I know a place where the sun is like gold, 
And the cherry blooms burst with snow; 

And down underneath is the loveliest nook, 
Where the four-leaf clovers grow. 

One leaf is for hope, and one is for faith, 

And one is for love, you know, 
But God put another in for luck — 

If you search, you will find where they grow. 

1 From "When the Birds Go North Again," by Mrs. Ella Higginson. 
Copyright, 1898, by the Macmillan Company, and used by special 
arrangement with the publishers and by the courteous permission of the 
author. 



238 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

But you must have hope, and you must have faith, 
You must love and be strong, and so, 

If you work, if you wait, you will find the place 
Where the four-leaf clovers grow. 

— Ella Higginson. 

NOTES 

1. Mrs. Higginson does not regard this as her best poem. Read her 

other poems, and see what ones you prefer to this one. 

2. Read 1 Cor. xiii. 

3. What other things besides four-leaf clovers are believed to bring 

good luck or good fortune? Ask your parents and friends; then 
make a complete list, and report the list at the class hour. 

4. Explain the meanings of the following words and expressions: 

blooms, burst with snow, nook, luck, faith, hope, love, search. 

EXERCISES 

1. When and where was this poem first published? 

2. Under what circumstances was it written? 

3. Explain "sun is like gold," "loveliest nook." 

4. For what does each of the four leaves stand? 

5. How only are we likely to find the "place where the four-leaf clovers 

grow"? 

6. Only upon what conditions do success and good fortune come to 

each individual? 

7. In what sense is the poem an interpretation of the author's life? 

Of the life of every other aspiring person? 

8. What consolation in this poem for discouraged hearts? 

9. What in this poem most strongly appeals to you? 

ADDITIONAL READINGS 

1 Corinthians xiii. 

Madelaine Bridges: Life's Mirror. 

Caroline Atherton Mason: The Voyage. 

Arnold: Self -Dependence. 

Holmes: The Sail. 



FOUR-LEAF CLOVER 239 

Doane: The Sculptor Boy. 

Riley: Just be Glad. 

Bukns: To a Mountain Daisy. 

Emerson: The Rhodora. 

Tennyson: Flower in the Crannied Wall. 



LOVE'S NOBILITY 

Not to scatter bread and gold, 
Goods and raiment bought and sold; 
But to hold fast his simple sense 
And speak the speech of innocence; 
And with hand and body and blood, 
To make his bosom-counsel good. 
He that feeds men serveth few; 
He serves all who dares be true. 

— Emerson. 



A PRAYER 1 



Teach me, Father, how to go 
Softly as the grasses grow; 
Teach me, Father, how to be 
Kind and patient as a tree. 
Let me, also, cheer a spot, 
Hidden field or garden grot — 
Place where passing souls can rest 
On the way and be their best. 

— Edwin Marhkam. 

1 From the poems of Edwin Markham. Copyrighted by the pub- 
lishers, Doubleday, Page & Co., and used by their courteous per- 
mission. 



THE HOUSE BY THE SIDE OF THE ROAD 

T N every age, men have sought to make the most 
■■■ of themselves. We are interested to know 
how different men have tried to do this. Hermits 
have withdrawn from active life, and have stood 
on stumps with hands clenched in prayer until 
their nails grew into the flesh of their hands, in 
their efforts to seek salvation. Great poets, 
statesmen, and prophets have given the world 
sublime messages, in their efforts to do what they 
believed to be best. Investigators in library or 
in laboratory have revealed new truth. In this 
day of busy, complex life, it is a relief to find a 
type of man who lives in touch with the surging 
stream of life, who has a heart which beats in 
sympathy with all humanity, who "rejoices 
when travelers rejoice," and who "weeps with 
the stranger who moans." We are attracted to 
such a one, who thus dwells in peace and con- 
tentment "In the House by the Side of the 
Road," and spends his choicest energy in being 
a real "friend" to his fellow man. 



240 



THE HOUSE BY THE SIDE OF THE ROAD 241 
THE HOUSE BY THE SIDE OF THE ROAD* 

He teas a friend to man, and lived in a house by the side of the road. — Homer 

There are hermit souls that live withdrawn 

In the peace of their self -content; 
There are souls, like stars, that dwell apart, 

In a fellowless firmament. 
There are pioneer souls that blaze their paths 

Where highways never ran; 
But let me live by the side of the road 

And be a friend to man. 

Let me live in a house by the side of the road, 

Where the race of men go by — 
The men who are good and the men who are bad, 

As good and as bad as I. . 
I would not sit in the scorner's seat, 

Or hurl the cynic's ban; 
Let me live in my house by the side of the road 

And be a friend to man. 

I see from my house by the side of the road, 

By the side of the highway of life, 
The men who press with the ardor of hope, 

The men who are faint with the strife. 
But I turn not away from their smiles nor their tears — 

Both parts of an infinite plan; 
Let me live in my house by the side of the road 

And be a friend to man. 

1 From Dreams in Homespun. Copyrighted by Lothrop, Lee & 
Shepard Co., and used by their courteous permission. 



242 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

I know there are brook-gladdened meadows ahead, 

And mountains of wearisome height; 
That the road passes on through the long afternoon, 

And stretches away to the night. 
But still I rejoice when the travelers rejoice, 

And weep with the strangers that moan, 
Nor live in my house by the side of the road 

Like a man who dwells alone. 

Let me live in my house by the side of the road 

Where the race of men go by — 
They are good, they are bad, they are weak, they 
are strong, 

Wise, foolish — so am I. 
Then why should I sit in the scorner's seat, 

Or hurl the cynic's ban? — 
Let me live in my house by the side of the road 

And be a friend to man. 

— Sam Walter Foss. 

NOTES 

1. Look up the term "hermit" and find all you can about the hermits 

of old. 

2. Find out as many ways as you can by which men try to do their 

best in life. How many "callings" do men enter? 

3. Be prepared to explain fully the meanings of the following words 

and expressions: hermit, self-content, fellowless firmament, 
pioneer souls, blaze, scorner's seat, cynic's, ban, highway of fife, 
ardor, infinite plan, brook-gladdened, wearisome height. 

EXERCISES 

1. What class of people is first mentioned in the poem? 

2. Who are next mentioned? 

3. Who constitute the third class? 



THE HOUSE BY THE SIDE OF THE ROAD 243 

4. In what class does the author desire to be? 

5. Describe fully the life of the hermit. 

6. Name some souls who "Dwell apart in a fellowless firmament." 

7. Who are some of the world's "pioneer souls"? 

8. Cite passages showing the extent to which the author regards himself 

as one of his fellow men. 

9. What class of men come by? 

10. Explain how "smiles" and "tears" are both "parts of an infinite 

plan." 

11. What are "brook-gladdened meadows"? 

12. What are "mountains of wearisome height"? 

13. Explain "sit in the scorner's seat." 

14. Explain "hurl the cynic's ban." 

15. Just what type of man does the poet desire to be? 

16. Just what is here meant by the expression "be a friend to man"? 



ADDITIONAL READINGS 

Leigh Hunt: Abou Ben Adhem. 
Whittier: The Brother of Mercy. 
B. E. Kiser: I Will. 

Lowell: Vision of Sir Launfal. 

Kipling: The White Man's Burden. The Law of the Jungle. 
Poe: The Man of the Crowd. ' 

Longfellow: The Legend Beautiful. 



THE EAGLE 



He clasps the crag with crooked hands; 
Close to the sun in lonely lands, 
Ring'd with the azure world, he stands. 

The wrinkled sea beneath him crawls; 
He watches from his mountain walls, 
And like a thunderbolt he falls. 

— Alfred Tennyson. 



A PARABLE ON BROTHERLY LOVE 

TT is a fine art to know how to live well in even 
so small a thing as in lending a mere trifle to 
one's brother or in making him a gift. An old 
adage warns us not to "look a gift horse in the 
mouth" in order to show the attitude of some 
who are moved to give falsely. Christ told His 
disciples that the widow who gave her all when 
she gave the mite had given more than many 
who had given a great store. James Russell 
Lowell tells us: 

"The Holy Supper is kept, indeed, 
In whatso we share with another's need; 
Not what we give, but what we share. 
For the gift without the giver is bare." 

In this "parable" Franklin has given us a 
similar version of brotherly love. In order to 
treat so high a theme, he very fittingly adopted 
the biblical style and language. It is said that 
Franklin used to take great delight in reading 
this "parable" to his friends who were often 
greatly puzzled when asked to tell in what part 
of the Bible the parable was found. 



244 



A ^ARABLE ON BROTHERLY LOVE 245 

A PARABLE ON BROTHERLY LOVE 

1. In those days there was no worker of iron in 
all the land. And the merchants of Midian passed 
by with their camels, bearing spices, and myrrh, 
and balm, and wares of iron. 

2. And Reuben bought an ax of the Ishmaelite 
merchants which he prized highly, for there was 
none in his father's house*. 

3. And Simeon said unto Reuben, his brother, 
"Lend me, I pray thee, thine ax." But he refused, 
and would not. 

4. And Levi also said unto him, " My brother, lend 
me, I pray thee, thine ax." And he refused him also. 

5. Then came Judah unto Reuben, and entreated 
him, saying, "Lo, thou lovest me, and I have always 
loved thee; do not refuse me the use of thine ax." 

6. But Reuben turned from him, and refused him 
likewise. 

7. Now it came to pass that Reuben hewed timber 
on the bank of the river, and his ax fell therein, and 
he could by no means find it. 

8. But Simeon, Levi, and Judah had sent a mes- 
senger after the Ishmaelites, with money, and had 
bought for themselves each an ax. 

9. Then came Reuben unto Simeon, and said, 
"Lo, I have lost mine ax, and my work is unfinished: 
lend me thine, I pray thee." 

10. And Simeon answered him, saying, "Thou 
wouldst not lend me thine ax; therefore will I not 
lend thee mine." 



246 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

11. Then went he unto Levi, and said unto him, 
"My brother, thou knowest my loss and my neces- 
sity; lend me, I pray thee, thine ax." 

12. And Levi reproached him, saying, "Thou 
wouldst not lend me thine ax when I desired it; but 
I will be better than thou, and I will lend thee 
mine." 

13. And Reuben was grieved at the rebuke of 
Levi, and, being ashamed, turned from him, and took 
not the ax, but sought his brother Judah. 

14. And as he drew near, Judah beheld his 
countenance as it were covered with grief and 
shame; and he prevented him, saying, "My brother, 
I know thy loss, but why should it trouble thee? Lo, 
have I not an ax that will serve both thee and me? 
Take it, I pray thee, and use it as thine own." 

15. And Reuben fell upon his neck, and kissed 
him, with tears, saying, "Thy kindness is great, but 
thy goodness in forgiving me is greater. Thou art 
indeed my brother, and whilst I live will I surely 
love thee." 

16. And Judah said, "Let us also loVe our other 
brethren; behold, are we not all of one blood?" 

17. And Joseph saw these things, and reported 
them to his father, Jacob. 

18. And Jacob said, "Reuben did wrong, but he 
repented* Simeon also did wrong; and Levi was not 
altogether blameless. But the heart of Judah is 
princely. Judah has the soul of a king. His father's 
children shall bow down before him, and he shall 
rule over his brethren." — Benjamin Franklin. 



A PARABLE ON BROTHERLY LOVE 247 



NOTES 

1. If possible, get and read a copy of Franklin's Autobiography. 

Notice especially how he taught himself to write good English. 

2. Read from the Bible the story of Joseph and his brethren. 

3. Define as used here: entreated, rebuke, prevented, parable, wares, 

messenger, necessity. 

EXERCISES 

1. Where is the scene of the parable laid? 

2. What were the "wares of iron" which the Midian merchants may 

have brought to Jacob and his sons. 

3. Was Reuben necessarily wiser or better than his brethren because 

he bought a more useful and desirable thing than they? 

4. Was Simeon justifiable in trying to borrow at all? 

5. Was Reuben justified in refusing to lend the ax? 

6. How did Levi's request differ from Simeon's? 

7. How did Judah's request differ from the requests of Simeon and 

Levi? 

8. What qualities of character does Reuben show so far? 

9. When you first read the story, did you blame Simeon? 

10. In what respect did Levi fail to be magnanimous? 

1 1 . What really caused Reuben to turn away from Levi? 

12. From the narrative, what moved Judah to proffer the lending of 

his ax before Reuben had said anything? 

13. Who did the entreating in this case? 

14. Explain fully Reuben's answer to Judah. 

15. What new characteristic is revealed when Judah insists that they 

must love the other brethren too? 

16. On whom did Jacob leave the greatest load of error? 

17. What proved that Judah had "the soul of a king"? 

ADDITIONAL READINGS 

Hunt: Abou Ben Adhem. 

Lowell: The Vision of Sir Launfal. 

Holland: My Dog Blanco. 

Hugo: The Bishop and the Convict. Toilers of the Sea. 

Van Dtke : The Mansion. 



THE GETTYSBURG ADDRESS 

Tj^VERY one should know by heart this peer- 
"*-^ less address, and should seek to appreciate 
its wonderful power. Lowell said of Lincoln, 
"He is so eminently a representative man, that, 
when he speaks, it seems as if the people were 
listening to their own thinking aloud." The 
address is now lettered on bronze tablets and 
placed in public buildings throughout the coun- 
try. 

On the nineteenth of November, 1863, a great 
crowd of people had gathered on the battle field 
of Gettysburg. It was the day for dedicating 
the Soldiers' Monument in memory of those 
heroic souls who, but four months before, had 
offered up their lives for their country. New 
England's most polished orator, Edward Ever- 
ett, delivered the address of the day. For two 
hours, the eloquent Everett held the vast 
assemblage spellbound. Round after round of 
applause followed his brilliant flights of oratory. 
After the applause for Everett had died away, 
Abraham Lincoln, then president of the United 
States, was introduced. His tall, gaunt figure 
and thin voice were in striking contrast with the 

majestic presence and matchless eloquence of 

248 



THE GETTYSBURG ADDRESS 249 

Everett. For a moment, the crowd showed 
signs of restlessness, then, caught by his earnest- 
ness, they became so deeply impressed that, as 
he took his seat, no sound of applause broke the 
sacred silence. 

When Lincoln congratulated Everett upon the 
oration of the day, Everett grasped Lincoln's 
hand and said, "Mr. President, I should flatter 
myself if I had come as near the central thought 
of this occasion in two hours as you have in two 
minutes." 



THE GETTYSBURG ADDRESS 

Fourscore and seven years ago, our fathers 
brought forth on this continent a new nation, con- 
ceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition 
that all men are created equal. 

Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing 
whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and 
so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a 
great battle field of that war. We have come to 
dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting- 
place for those who here gave their lives that that 
nation might live. It is altogether fitting and 
proper that we should do this. 

But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate — we 
cannot consecrate — we cannot hallow — this ground. 
The brave men, living and dead, who struggled 
here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power 



250 ESSENTIALS" "OF READING 

to add or detract. The world will little note, nor 
long remember, what we say here, but it can never 
forget what they did here. It is for us, the living, 
rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work 
which they who fought here have thus far so nobly 
advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated 
to the great task remaining before us — that from 
these honored dead we take increased devotion to 
that cause for which they gave the last full measure 
of devotion — that we here highly resolve that these 
dead shall not have died in vain — that this nation, 
under God, shall have a new birth of freedom — 
and that government of the people, by the people, 
for the people, shall not perish from the earth. — 
Abraham Lincoln. 

NOTES 

1. Read Mary R. S. Andrews' "The Perfect Tribute." This is 

the most popular piece of Lincoln fiction published. 

2. Learn this address by heart. 

3. Be prepared to give the meanings of the following words and ex- 

pressions: conceived in liberty, dedicated, consecrate, hallow, 
detract, increased devotion, last full measure of devotion, new birth 
of freedom. 

EXERCISES 

1. Under what circumstances was this address given? 

2. How was this nation conceived and dedicated? 

3. What does Lincoln regard as the central purpose of the war? 

4. What is the purpose of this great gathering? 

5. Explain fully the meanings of "dedicate," "consecrate," "hallow," 

as here used. 

6. In what sense was the field already consecrated? 

7. Explain "last full measure of devotion." 

8. What unfinished work remained for the living? 



THE GETTYSBURG ADDRESS 251 

9. Explain "of the people, by the people, for the people." 

10. Why do you think this is one of America's greatest orations? 

11. Bring to class other matters of interest concerning Lincoln. 



ADDITIONAL READINGS 

Mart Raymond Shipman Andrews: The Perfect Tribute. 

Everett: Gettysburg Address. 

Riley: The Silent Victors. 

Clough: Say not the Struggle Naught Availeth. 

Paine: The New Memorial Day. 

Carleton: Cover Them Over. 

Whitman: O Captain! My Captain! 

Seward: The Irrepressible Conflict. 

Brooks : Character of Abraham Lincoln. 

Henry Watterson: Abraham Lincoln. 



For he who blesses most is blest; 

And God and man shall own his worth 
Who toils to leave as his bequest 

An added beauty to the earth. 

And, soon or late, to all that sow, 
The time of harvest shall be given; 

The flower shall bloom, the fruit shall grow, 
If not on earth, at last in heaven. 

Give fools their gold, and knaves their power; 

Let fortune's bubbles rise and fall; 
Who sows a field, or trains a flower, 

Or plants a tree, is more than all. 

— John Greenleaf Whittier. 



ABOU BEN ADHEM 

*T* HE story is told of a certain rich man of 
the East whose wife had passed away, and 
whose children had grown up and moved to far 
distant countries. He was a wise man, kind- 
hearted, who loved people. So he filled his 
large house with poor, homeless children, whose 
grateful smiles gladdened him, and whose gay 
laughter filled his old heart with joy. The weary 
traveler, the poor outcast, and the sick or sor- 
rowful alike received comfort and cheer beneath 
the hospitable roof and around the heavily laden 
board of the old patriarch. What unspeakable 
joy and peace touched his heart as he saw cheer 
and gladness illumine the dark hearts of his 
fellow beings. One night he awoke from peace- 
ful sleep to see the room enriched with the sub- 
dued light of a beautiful angel presence, who told 
him his name was not recorded in the "book of 
gold" with "the names of those who love the 
Lord." "I pray thee, then," said he cheerily 
and low, "write my name as one who loves his 
fellow men." And lo! God, through the angel 

2S2 



ABOU BEN ADHEM 253 

presence, recognized in this the true relationship 
of a devout follower, and gave the peaceful old 
patriarch first place among all those whose lives 
were blessed by love of God. The poet here 
catches the lofty vision that loving and serving 
one's fellow man is the primary way one can 
love and serve his God. "Inasmuch as ye did 
it unto one of the least of these my brethren, ye 
did it unto me." 

ABOU BEN ADHEM 

Abou Ben Adhem (may his tribe increase!) 
Awoke one night from a deep dream of peace, 
And saw, within the moonlight in his room, 
Making it rich, and like a lily in bloom, 
An angel, writing in a book of gold. 
Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold, 
And to the Presence in the room he said, 
"What writest thou?" The vision raised its head, 
And, with a look made all of sweet accord, 
Answered, "The names of those who love the 

Lord." 
"And is mine one?" said Abou; "Nay, not so," 
Replied the angel. Abou spoke more low, 
But cheerily still; and said, "I pray thee, then, 
Write me as one who loves his fellow men." 
The angel wrote and vanished. The next night 
It came again, with a great awakening light, 
And showed the names of those whom love of God 

had blessed — 
And, lo! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest. 

— Leigh Hunt. 



254 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

EXERCISES 

EL What leads the author at the outset to exclaim enthusias- 
tically "may his tribe increase!"? 

2. In what frame of mind did Abou Ben Adhem behold the 

vision ? 

3. What was Ben Adhem's feeling when he found his name was 

not among the names of those who loved the Lord? 

4. What request did he make? 

5. In what mood did he make the request? 

6. How could he have "exceeding peace" under such circum- 

stances ? 

7. How was God's acceptance of Ben Adhem's service shown? 

8. What doctrine of life is here set forth? 

9. Why is this poem so popular? 

ADDITIONAL READINGS 

Stevenson: The Lamplighter. 

Longfellow : Santa Filomena. 

Whittiee: Riches of the Commonwealth. The Brother of Mercy. 

George P. Lathrop : The Star to Its Light. 

Matthew xxv, 34-46. 

Luke x, 25-37 : Story of the Good Samaritan. 

Lowell: Vision of Sir Launfal. Yussouf. 

Foss, S. W.: The House by the Side of the Road. 

Naylor: Dr. John Goodfellow — Office Upstairs. 



LIVE TO-DAY 



Yesterday is a memory, 
To-morrow is an imagination, 
To-day is eternity. 
Live to-day and live forever. 
Cut out two days of your life — 
Yesterday with its mistakes and follies, 
To-morrow with its fears and dreads, 
And live only to-day. 

— Anonymous. 



WAVE AND TIDE 

/"OCCASIONALLY, we hear people say, 
"The world is growing worse." Such peo- 
ple have never gotten the best out of life. From 
the time when his first toy broke or his red bal- 
loon exploded, every person has had discourage- 
ments and disappointments. But one must learn 
to rise above discouragements. By sticking to a 
fixed plan, one can accomplish almost anything. 
Helen Keller, blind, deaf, and dumb, after years 
of severe training and patient effort, wrote the 
story of her life and even delivered public ad- 
dresses. Sticking to it is what counts. "If at 
first you don't succeed, try, try again," is the 
poet's way of urging each one to overcome ob- 
stacles. An old proverb declares the same truth 
in, "The constant dropping of wat&r wears the 
hardest stone away." 

In the following poem, the author has doubt- 
less caught this same great truth as she sat on 
the seashore and observed the breaking waves 
and the incoming tide. She saw the wild waves 
shattered into foam. Though the waves fell 
"broken and beaten," she observed that the 
mighty sea behind them with tide after tide, 
finally, in a "chant of triumph," crushed the 

25s 



256 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

strongest reef. In all this she saw a beau- 
tiful symbol of the final triumph of right and 
righteousness in human life. 

WAVE AND TIDE* 

On the far reef the breakers 

Recoil in shattered foam, 
Yet still the sea behind them 

Urges its forces home; 
Its chant of triumph surges 

Through all the thunderous din — 
The wave may break in failure, 

But the tide is sure to win ! 

The reef is strong and cruel; 

Upon its jagged wall 
One wave — a score — a hundred, 

Broken and beaten fall; 
Yet in defeat they conquer, 

The sea comes flooding in — 
Wave upon wave is routed, 

But the tide is sure to win! 

O mighty sea! thy message 

In clanging spray is cast; 
Within God's plan of progress 

It matters not at last 
How wide the shores of evil, 

How strong the reefs of sin — ■ 
The wave may be defeated, 

But the tide is sure to win! 

— Priscilla Leonard. 



*Prom The Outlook, August, 1910. Used by the courteous 
permission of The Outlook Company. 



WAVE AND TIDE 257 

NOTES 

1. Bring in pictures of sea scenes which show the "breakers." 

2. Bring in other sayings which have the thought of "Try, try 

again." 

3. Tell of cases in which persons began works or projects and 

failed to finish them. 

4. Tell of cases in which persons triumphed over great obstacles. 

5. Reef. "A chain or range of rocks lying at or near the surface 

of the water." Coral reefs are familiar examples. 

6. Breakers. A wave breaking into foam against the shore or 

on a rock or reef near the surface of the water. 

7. Be prepared to give clear meanings of the following words and 

expressions: Wave, tide, reef, breakers, recoil, shattered 
foam, chant, surges, thunderous din, jagged wall, score, 
routed, clanging spray, progress, shores of evil, reefs of sin. 

EXERCISES 

1. What experience of the author evidently inspired this poem? 

2. What contrast is given in the first four lines? 

3. What is the sea's "chant of triumph"? 

4. What is the meaning of "thunderous din"? 

5. What sharp contrast in the last two lines of the first stanza ? 

6. In what sense does the wave "break in failure"? 

7. In what sense do the waves "conquer" in "defeat"? 

8. Why does the author speak of the spray as "clanging"? 

9. What are "the shores of evil"? 

10. What are "the reefs of sin"? 

11. What in life corresponds to wave and tide? 

12. What truth concerning "God's plan of progress" does the 

author discover? 

ADDITIONAL READINGS 

Mason: The Voyage. 

Procter: The Sea. 

Holmes: The Sail. The Chambered Nautilus. 

Burroughs: My Own Shall Come to Me. 

Whether: The Eternal Goodness. 



THE NEW SOUTH TO NEW 
ENGLAND 

npHE same spirit of generosity that led the 
women of the South to decorate alike the 
graves of Union and Confederate soldiers, led 
the great leaders of the Southland to be big in 
defeat. The Civil War left wounds that were 
not readily healed. For a long time it was de- 
clared that reconciliation was impossible. But 
strong minds and brave hearts set themselves to 
the task. Providence created common interests 
and common dangers. Sterling common sense 
banished sectional discord, until to-day the nation 
we all love presents an undivided front to every 
foe within and without. 

It is a great and interesting study to trace the 
causes that brought about this happy state of 
affairs. One of these causes is involved in the 
study given below. Henry W. Grady was a 
native of Athens, Georgia. He received his edu- 
cation in the Universities of Georgia and Vir- 
ginia. Taking up a life of journalism, he soon 
became an acknowledged leader in his profession. 
He did not win renown as an orator until 1886, 
when he sprang into prominence by the delivery 

258 



THE NEW SOUTH TO NEW ENGLAND 259 

of a single speech at a banquet of the New Eng- 
land Society in New York City. This study is 
an extract from that address. So potent an in- 
fluence in reuniting the two sections was this con- 
sidered, that Grady was given the nickname of 
"The National Pacificator." His speech has 
been widely quoted and admired. It is a master- 
piece in which all true Americans will delight 
and its sentiment has met with a ready response 
in every patriotic heart. 

THE NEW SOUTH TO NEW ENGLAND 

The New South is enamored of her new work. 
Her soul is stirred with the breath of a new life. 
The light of a grander day is falling fair on her 
face. She is thrilling with the consciousness of 
growing power and prosperity. As she stands 
upright, f ull-statured, and equal among the people 
of the earth, breathing the keen air and looking 
out upon the expanded horizon, she understands 
that her emancipation came because, in the in- 
scrutable wisdom of God, her honest purpose was 
crossed and her brave armies were beaten. 

This is said in no spirit of time serving or 
apology. The South has nothing for which to 
apologize.. She believes that the late struggle be- 
tween the states was war and not rebellion; revo- 
lution and not conspiracy; and that her convic- 
tions were as honest as yours. I should be unjust 
to the dauntless spirit of the South and to my own 



2 6o ESSENTIALS OF READING 

convictions if I did not make this plain in this 
presence. The South has nothing to take back. 

In my native town of Athens is a monument 
that crowns its central hill — a plain, white shaft. 
Deep cut into its shining side is a name dear to 
me above the names of men, that of a brave and 
simple man who died in brave and simple faith. 
Not for all the glories of New England — from 
Plymouth Rock all the way — would I exchange 
the heritage he left me in his soldier's death. To 
the foot of that shaft I shall send my children's 
children to reverence him who ennobled his name 
with his heroic blood. But, Sir, speaking from 
the shadow of that memory, which I honor as I 
do nothing else on earth, I say that the cause in 
which he suffered and for which he gave his life 
was adjudged by higher and fuller wisdom than 
his or mine, and I am glad that the omniscient 
God held the balance of battle in His Almighty 
hand, and that human slavery was swept forever 
from American soil — the American Union saved 
from the wreck of war. 

This message, Mr. President, comes to you from 
consecrated ground. Every foot of the soil about 
the city in which I live is sacred as a battle-ground 
of the republic. Every hill that invests it is hal- 
lowed to you by the blood of your brothers, who 
died for your victory, and doubly hallowed to us 
by the blood of those who died, hopeless, but un- 
daunted, in defeat — sacred soil to all of us, — rich 
with memories that make us purer and stronger 
and better, silent but stanch witnesses in its red 



THE NEW SOUTH TO NEW ENGLAND 261 

desolation of the matchless valor of American 
hearts and the deathless glory of American arms 
— speaking an eloquent witness in its white peace 
and prosperity to the indissoluble union of Ameri- 
can States and the imperishable brotherhood of 
the American people. 

Now, what answer has New England to this 
message? Will she permit the prejudices of war 
to remain in the hearts of the conquerors, when it 
has died in the hearts of the conquered? Will she 
transmit this prejudice to the next generation, 
that in their hearts, which never felt the generous 
ardor of conflict, it may perpetuate itself? Will 
she withhold, save in strained courtesy, the hand 
which straight from his soldier's heart Grant 
offered to Lee at Appomattox? Will she make the 
vision of a restored and happy people which gath- 
ered above the couch of your dying captain, filling 
his heart with grace, touching his lips with praise 
and glorifying his path to the grave; will she 
make this vision on which the last sigh of his 
expiring soul breathed a benediction, a cheat and 
a delusion? 

If she does, the South, never abject in asking 
for comradeship, must accept with dignity the 
refusal; but if she does not refuse to accept in 
frankness and sincerity this message of good will 
and friendship, then will the prophecy of Webster, 
delivered in this very society forty years ago amid 
tremendous applause, be verified in its fullest and 
final sense, when he said: "Standing hand to 
hand and clasping hands, we should remain united 



262 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

as we have been for sixty years, citizens of the 
same country, members of the same government, 
united, all united now and united forever. There 
have been difficulties, contentions, and controver- 
sies, but I tell you that in my judgment, 
" 'Those opposed eyes, 
Which like the meteors of a troubled heaven, 
All of one nature, of one substance bred, 
Did lately meet in the intestine shock, 
Shall now, in mutual well-beseeming ranks, 
March all one way.' " 

— Henry W. Grady. 

NOTES 

1. Mr. Grady's father was a Confederate officer. The name 

alluded to as especially dear to him was that of his father. 

2. At the time of the delivery of this speech, Mr. Grady lived in 

Atlanta. From your history, verify what he says of the 
ground surrounding his home being sacred. 

3. Find out all you can of what passed between Lee and Grant 

at the time of the surrender at the Appomattox Court 
House. 

4. Define as used here: enamored, inscrutable, dauntless, herit- 

age, ennobled, adjudged, omniscient, consecrated, hallowed, 
indissoluble, strained courtesy, captain, abject, conten- 
tions, controversies, intestine, well-beseeming. 

EXERCISES 

1. Explain the term, "The New South." 

2. What was her new work? 

3. From what was she emancipated? 

4. How could this emancipation come from defeat? 

5. What difference did Grady imply between war and rebellion? 

6. What was the heritage left by the soldier-father in his sol- 

dier's death? 



THE NEW SOUTH TO NEW ENGLAND 263 

7. What two things does he declare the war did? 

8. When is any place "hallowed"? 

9. Can any emotion other than suffering make a thing sacred? 

10. What is meant by Grant offering his hand straight from his 

heart? 

11. Why was it tactful to call attention to what had been the 

ideals of Grant and Webster? 

12. What answer must New England make to such a message? 

13. What in this speech shows the breadth and sincerity of the 

speaker? 

14. What in this speech do you like best? Why? 

ADDITIONAL READINGS 

Ryan: The Conquered Banner. The Cause of the South. 

Emiiett: Dixie. 

Page: In Ole Virginia. 

Watterson: Abraham Lincoln. 

Payne: Home, Sweet Home. 

Finch: The Blue and the Gray. 

Timrod: Ode to the Confederate Flag. 

Emma Lazarus: The South. 

Townsend: A Georgia Volunteer. 

Ticknor: Little Giffen of Tennessee. 

Bonnie Blue Flag. 

Old Kentucky Home. 



READING 



Reading without purpose is sauntering, not ex- 
ercise. More is got from one book on which the 
thought settles, for a definite end in knowledge, 
than from libraries skimmed over by a wander- 
ing eye: A cottage flower gives honey to the bee 
— a king's garden none to the butterfly. — Edward 
Bulwer-Lytton. 



THE RECESSIONAL 

' I A HIS poem came at the close of Queen Vic- 
A toria's Diamond Jubilee, the great national 
demonstration which marked the sixtieth year of 
the prosperous reign of England's great Chris- 
tian Queen. Of "The Recessional," Kipling him- 
self says: "That poem gave me more trouble 
than anything I ever wrote. I had promised 
the London Times a poem on the Jubilee, and 
when it became due, I had written nothing that 
had satisfied me. The Times began to want the 
poem badly, and sent letter after letter asking 
for it. I made many more attempts, but no 
further progress. Finally the Times began 
sending telegrams. So I shut myself in a room 
with a determination to stay there until I had 
written a Jubilee poem. Sitting down with all 
my previous attempts before me, I searched 
through those dozens of sketches till at last I 
found just one line I liked. That was 'Lest we 
forget.' Round these words 'The Recessional' 
was written." 

Picture the pomp and pageantry of the Great 
Jubilee. Native princes from the Far East, am- 
bassadors from the royal houses of Europe, the 

264 



THE RECESSIONAL 265 

vast military and naval displays, the magnificent 
civic celebration by procession, public services, 
and bonfires — all united to pour out a nation's 
adulation and praise to England's greatest 
Queen. A great empire, in its dream of pride 
and power, had seemed to lose sight of the great 
King of kings, and as the armies returned to 
their posts, the navies departed for far-away 
island possessions, the kings and oriental chiefs 
returned, and the bonfires of jubilee died away, 
"The Recessional" recalled the nation from its 
dream of pride and power, and the refrain of 
the poet became the prayer of the people. 
Within a few months after its publication this 
poem became one of the most widely known and 
admired poems in the language. 

THE RECESSIONAL 

God of our fathers, known of old — 

Lord of our far-flung battle line, 
Beneath whose awful hand we hold 

Dominion over palm and pine — 
Lord God of Hosts, be with us yet, 
Lest we forget — lest we forget! 

The tumult and the shouting dies — 
The captains and the kings depart, 

Still stands Thine ancient sacrifice, . 
An humble and a contrite heart. 



266 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

Lord God of Hosts, be with us yet, 
Lest we forget — lest we forget! 

Far-called, our navies melt away — 
On dune and headland sinks the fire; 

Lo ! all our pomp of yesterday 
Is one with Nineveh and Tyre! 

Judge of the Nations, spare us yet, 

Lest we forget — lest we forget! 

If, drunk with sight of power, we loose 

Wild tongues that have not Thee in awe — 

Such boastings as the Gentiles use 
Or lesser breeds without the law — 

Lord God of Hosts, be with us yet, 

Lest we forget — lest we forget ! 

For heathen heart that puts her trust 

In reeking tube and iron shard — 
All valiant dust that builds on dust, 

And guarding, calls not Thee to guard — 
For frantic boast and foolish word, 
Thy mercy on thy people, Lord! 

Amen. 
— Rudyard Kipling. 

EXERCISES 

1. What is a recessional? Why, then, is the title so appro- 

priate ? 

2. Select and explain the expressions which show the vastness 

of the British Empire. 

3. What is the meaning of the refrain at the close of each 

stanza? 



THE RECESSIONAL 267 

4. Why call a contrite heart an ancient sacrifice? 

5. Explain the allusion to Nineveh and Tyre. 

6. Who are the Gentiles? The "lesser breeds without the law"? 

7. Who, then, are regarded as a chosen people? 

8. Explain clearly, reeking tube, iron shard, valiant dust, fran- 

tic boast. 

9. What is meant by dust building on dust? 

10. Why should this poem be as popular in America as iri Eng- 

land ? 

11. What message for the whole race made this poem at once one 

of the most widely known and admired poems in the lan- 
guage? 

ADDITIONAL READINGS 

Pope: The Universal Prayer. 

Bible: Psalms 29 and 68. 

J. B. Gilder: The Parting of the Ways. 

Whittieb: Centennial Hymn. King Solomon and the Ants. 

PvUskin: Dawn of Peace. 



THEY COME NOT BACK 

Remember, these three things come not back 
The arrow sent upon its track — 
It will not swerve, it will not stay 
Its speed; it flies to wound or slay. 

The spoken word, so soon forgot 
By thee; but it has perished not; 
In other hearts 't is living still, 
And doing work for good or ill. 

And the lost opportunity, 

That cometh back no more to thee, 

In vain thou weep'st, in vain dost yearn: 

These three will nevermore return. 

— Anonymous. 



LINCOLN, THE GREAT COMMONER 

AS Abraham Lincoln lay dying, Edmund 
Stanton, the great War Secretary, said, 
"Now he belongs to the ages." At the time, 
few or none comprehended the import of this 
saying. With the passing years, not statesmen 
alone nor Americans alone, but the world is be- 
ginning to see that the wisdom of the speaker is 
being verified hourly. Everywhere the martyr- 
president's wisdom, tenderness, and simplicity 
have been discussed until he has become the ac- 
cepted type of these virtues. His old friends, 
the members of his cabinet, his letters, and every 
conceivable source have been besought for ad- 
ditional material concerning the habits, character 
and life of this great American. Authors of all 
degrees of prominence have laid their meed of 
praise upon the monument of Lincoln Litera- 
ture until it has grown to bewildering magnitude. 
Among all the splendid tributes paid, none ex- 
cels in beauty, aptness, and dignity the follow- 
ing written by Edwin Markham. 

LINCOLN, THE GREAT COMMONER* 

When the Norn-Mother saw the Whirlwind Hour, 
Greatening and darkening as it hurried on, 

*Used by tha courteous permission of the Editor of McClure's 
Magazine, in which the poem was first published. 



LINCOLN, THE GREAT COMMONER 269 

She bent the strenuous Heavens and came down, 

To make a man to meet the mortal need. 

She took the tried clay of the common road — 

Clay warm yet with the genial heat of earth, 

Dashed through it all a strain of prophecy; 

Then mixed a laughter with the serious stuff. 

It was a stuff to wear for centuries, 

A man that matched the mountains and compelled 

The stars to look our way and honor us. 

The color of the ground was in him, the red Earth, 

The tang and odor of the primal things; 

The rectitude and patience of the rocks; 

The gladness of the wind that shakes the corn; 

The courage of the bird that dares the sea; 

The justice of the rain that loves all leaves; 

The pity of the snow that hides all scars; 

The loving kindness of the wayside well; 

The tolerance and equity of light 

That gives as freely to the shrinking weed 

As to the great oak flaring to the wind — 

To the grave's low hill as to the Matterhorn 

That shoulders out the sky. 

And so he came, 
From prairie cabin to the Capitol, 
One fair ideal led our chieftain on, 
Forevermore he burned to do his deed 
With the fine stroke and gesture of a King. 
He built the rail pile as he built the State, 
Pouring his splendid strength through every blow, 



270 ESSENTIALS OF READING 

The conscience of him testing every stroke, 
To make his deed the measure of a man. 

So came the Captain with the mighty heart; 
And when the step of earthquake shook the house, 
Wrenching the rafters from their ancient hold, 
He held the ridgepole up and spiked again 
The rafters of the Home. He held his place — 
Held the long purpose like a growing tree — ' 
Held on through blame and faltered not at praise, •'] 
And when he fell in whirlwind, he went down 
As when a kingly cedar green with boughs 
Goes down with a great shout upon the hills 
And leaves a lonesome place against the sky. 

— Edwin Markham. 

NOTES 
j 1. If possible, secure a collection of pictures of Mr. Lincoln and 

study carefully the striking features and expressions of 

each. 
I 2. Read some good biography of Mr. Lincoln and if obtainable, 

a collection of Lincoln Stories. 

3. Norn-Mother. See Norn in any good dictionary. 

4. Look up the meanings of the following words and expressions 

as here used: Norn-Mother, strenuous Heavens, Whirl- 
wind Hour, tang, primal things, rectitude, tolerance, equity, 
flaring, wrenching, ridgepole. 

EXERCISES 

1. Explain "Norn-Mother." 

2. What was the "Whirlwind Hour"? 

3. Why were the Heavens spoken of as "strenuous"? 

4. What does the word "mortal" mean as used in the fourth 

line? 

5. What is the significance of "tried clay" ? 

,6. Tell an incident of Lincoln's life that would prove that he; 
was yet "warm with the genial heat of earth." 



LINCOLN, THE GREAT COMMONER 271 

7. Mention anything he ever said that betrays a "strain of 

prophecy." 

8. What shows that "laughter" was mixed in? 

9. How did he "match our mountains"? 

10. How many characteristics are enumerated in the second 

stanza? 

11. Mention any comparison that seems beautiful to you? 

12. What is the Matterhorn? 

13. What is the difference in aim of the first two stanzas? 

14. What is the purpose of the third stanza? 

15. Do you consider it probable that the forests and prairies did 

affect his character? 

16. Define "burned" as used in "he burned to do his deed." 

17. In what sense did his conscience test every stroke? 

18. How are our deeds frequently the "measure of a man"? 

19. Why call Lincoln "Captain"? 

20. What was "the house"? 

21. What was "the step of earthquake" which "shook the house"? 

22. What was the "long purpose"? 

23. What is shown of one who falters at praise? 

24. Explain "fell in whirlwind." 

25. Why compare him with a cedar, "green with boughs"? 

26. In what sense did Lincoln leave a "lonesome place against 

the sky" ? 

ADDITIONAL READINGS 

Whitman: O Captain! My Captain! 

Lincoln : Gettysburg Address. 

Lowell: Centennial Hymn. 

Ingebsoll: Eulogy of Lincoln. 

Stoddabd : Abraham Lincoln. 

Tybbell : The Man of the Hour. 

Wobdswobth : The Happy Warrior. 

Phillips Bbooks : Abraham Lincoln. A Funeral Sermon. 

Beeches: The Death of Lincoln. 

B. D. C. Bobbins : The Soldier's Beprieve. 

Andbews : The Perfect Tribute. 

Wattebson : Abraham Lincoln. 

Stedman : The Hand of Lincoln. 



INDEX 



"Abou, Ben Adhem," 252 

Accent and Emphasis, 30, 31 

Acting, 40 

Action work, 97 

Allegory, 59 

Alphabet method, 83 

Alternating program, 127 

Analysis of pitch and melody, 35 

Apostrophe, 63 

Arnold, Matthew, quoted, 65 

Articulation, 164 

aspirate, 166, 172 

commercial value, 164 

dentals, 166, 168 

example, 15 
Articulation drill, 195 
Articulation exercises, 167, 185 

hard combinations, 172 
Articulation, labials, 166, 167 

liquids, 166, 171 

long words, 174 

method of instruction, 166 

nasals, 166, 171 

palatals, 166, 170 

review and suggestion, 179 

outline, 178 

similar sounds, 175 

systematic exercises, 165 
Aspirate, definition, 166 

exercise, 172 
Assigning the reading lesson, 190 
Assignments, blackboard question, 

205 
Assignments, topical, 205 

reproduction, 205 

original question, 205 

quiz, 206 

careful, 208 

placing on board, 193 

of lesson, 121 

of lesson, careless, 9 
Atmosphere, examples of, 51 

of a selection, 51 
"Barefoot Boy," quoted, 50 
Barrie, quoted, 78 



"Battle Hymn of the Republic," 9 
Bennett, Henry Holcomb, quoted, 

44 
Book as an obstacle, 146 
Browning, quoted, 69 
Bryant, quoted, 65 
Byron, quoted, 48 
Careless assignment of lesson, 9 
" Chambered Nautilus," quoted, 66 
Character, effects of, 71 
"Charge of the Light Brigade," 

study of, 206 
Chicago Tribune, quoted, 164 
"Chicken Little," 30 
Circumstance, commonplace, 5 
Circumflex inflection, 35 

inflection and contrast, 24 
"Circus-Day Parade," 218 
Classification of material, 130 

of material, outline, 142 

of material, review and sugges- 
tions, 143 
Commonplace circumstance, 5 
Completeness, momentary, 36 
Contrast, and circumflex inflec- 
tion, 24 

emphasis, 24 
Conversation, melody in, ^3 
Correct habits, 20 
Correlation of Writing with Read- 
ing, 94 
"Count Gismond," quoted, 69 
"Courtin'; The," 74 
"Crossing the Bar," 37 
Cumnock, Prof., incident, 50 
"Daniel Webster's First Case." 

232 _ 
Declaiming, 40 
Degree, effects of, 72 
Dentals, definition, 166 

exercises, 168 
Development of new ideas, 122 
Dialect selections, 74 
Dialogue, 104 
Dickens, quoted, 6, 78 



273 



274 



INDEX 



Dictionary, abbreviations, 159 


Emphasis, and main idea, 22 


definitions, 123 


and new ideas, 23 


how to use, 160 


and personal pronouns, 23 


Italian a, 157 


example of, 25 


Key to symbols, 155 


of contrast, 31 


long sounds, 157 


too many words, 24 


prefixes and suffixes, 159 


Examples, atmosphere, 51 


rules for spelling, 159 


effects, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73 


short 0, 158 


emphasis, 24, 143, 145, 150 


short vowels, 157, 158 


force, 43, 44 


study of alphabet, 156 


grouping, 15, 16, 17 


suspended bar, 157 


melody, 25, 27, 29, 34, 36, 150 


table of contents, 155 


quality, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52 


use of, 154 


time, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11 


Dictionary, use of, outline, 162 


types, 57, 58, 64, 65, 66 


use of, review and suggestion, 163 


Exercises, effects, 74, 79 


Difference between declaiming 


figures, 64, 65 


and reading, 41 


grouping, 15 


Difficult words, 101 


obstacles to good expression, 153 


Directions, mechanical, 8 


Experiential words, 124 


Discipline and melody, 33 


Expression, and questions, 22 


Divisions of reading recitations, 


obstacles to good, 144 


120 


how secure, 208 


Division of recitation and assign- 


in reading, 206 


ment of lesson, outline, 128 


Expressive readers, 96, 102 


review and suggestions, 128 


Expressive reading, time to begin, 


Division of room, 126 


20 


"Don't know line, The," 135 


Eye, training the, 140 


Dramatization, 104 


Fables, 60 


Effects, 69 


Falling inflection, 34, 37 


classified, 71, 72 


Figures, of speech, 58 


defined, 70 


allegory, 59 


exercises, 72, 78 


apostrophe, 63 


of character, 71 


exercises, 63 


Effects of degree, 72 


Figures, fables, 60 


of incident, 71 


metaphor, 58 


of kind, 72 


metonymy, 62 


of mood, 71 


parables, 60 • 


outline, 79 


personification, 62 


review and suggestions, 79 


simile, 59 


Elizabeth Stuart Phelps, quoted, 


synecdoche, 62 


36 


Final stress, 41 


Emerson, quoted, 47 


"Flag Goes By, The," 44 


Emotion, and emphasis, 31 


First Steps with the Beginner, 90 


determines quality, 46 


Fluent Readers, 96 


Emotional words, 124 


Force, 40 


Emphasis, illustration, 210 


emphasis, 31 


Emphasis, and accent, 31 


examples, 43 


and emotion, 31 


outline, 45 


and grouping, 15 


Foreign-born child and time, 9 



INDEX 



275 



Foss, Sam Walter, quoted, 240 


Illustrative lessons, 26, 180, 217 


"Four-Leaf Clover," 236 


Imitation, in acting and declaim- 


Franklin, Benjamin, quoted, 244 


ing, 41 


Function of emphasis, 19 


of teacher, 22 


of reading, 41 


Importance of mechanics of read- 


Geography lesson, study of, 202 


ing, 3 


"Gettysburg Address," 248 


Importance of thought in reading, 


Good expression, how to get, 20 


.3 


obstacles to, 144 


Incident, effects of, 71 


Grady, Henry W., quoted, 258 


Independent Readers, 96 


Grammar grade pupil and groups, 


Inference, 70 


14 


Inflection, and groups, 14, 211 


Gray, quoted, 52 


at end of sentence, ^5 


Groups and grammar grade pupil, 


circumflex, 35 


14 


circumflex and contrast, 24 


and inflection, 14 


falling, 35 


and intermediate pupils, 14 


rising, 35 


and primary pupils, 14 


Initiative in study, 134 


words in, 13 


Interest, Sources of, 87 


Grouping, 13 


Intermediate lesson, 188 


and emphasis, 15 


Intermediate pupil and groups, 


and liberty of thought, 15 


14 


Grouping and punctuation, 13 


Interpretative reading, 100 


and thought, 13 


Interpreting melody, 34 


exercise, 15 


Irony, 34 


marking, 16 


"John Adams' Speech," 7 


purpose of, 13 


Key, 35 


rules, 15 


Kind, effects of, 72 


Habits, Establishing correct, 20, 


Kipling, Rudyard, quoted, 264 


94 


"King Solomon and the Two 


Henry Holcomb Bennett, quoted, 


Mothers," 228 


44 


"Knights' Chorus," 51 


Hawthorne, quoted, 78 


Knowledge of mechanics of read- 


Hiawatha, 182 


ing, 3 


High Key, 35 


Labials, definition, 166 


Higginson, Ella, quoted, 236 


exercises, 167 


Holley, Marietta, quoted, 5 


"L' Allegro," quoted, 51 


Holmes, quoted, 47, 66 


Language exercises as obstacles, 


"House that Jack Built," 26 


I 5 I 


"House, The, by the Side of the 


"Lark and the Farmer," assign- 


Road," 240 


ment, 125 


Howe, Julia Ward, quoted, 10 


"Lark's Nest," The, 25 


How to get good expression, 20 


Largeness of thought, 4 


Hug®, Victor, quoted, 50, 78 


"Lead, Kindly Light," 15 


Hunt, Leigh, quoted, 252 


Learning to Read, IX 


Idea, main, 19 


Length of lesson, 122 


Ideals, wrong, children's, 145 


Leonard, Priscilla, quoted, 255 


Ideas, development of new, 122 


Lesson, assignment of, 121 


succession of, 122, 151 


careless assignment of, 9 


"I galloped, Dirck galloped," 5 


illustrative, 26 



276 



INDEX 



Lesson, length of, 122 


Mental attitude, 148 


selection of, 121 


Mental attitude, right, 209 


unity, 23 


Mental energy, 41 


Liberty of thought, 15 


Metaphor, 58 


Lincoln, Abraham, quoted, 48, 


Methods compared, 86 


248 


Metonymy, 62 


"Lincoln, the Great Commoner," 


Milton, quoted, 51 


268 


Model assignment, 125 


Liquids, definition, 166 


Model blackboard assignment, 193 


exercises, 171 


Models, good, 209 


Lists of words as obstacles, 151 


Momentary completeness, 36 


"Little Nell, Death of," 6 


Mood, effects of, 71 


Literary Interpretation, IX 


Mother Goose's rhymes, 4 


Longfellow, quoted, 16, 59, 64, 65 


Motive and melody, S3 


Look and say method, 38 


of speaker, 19, 29, 36 


Looking for main ideas, 22 


Movement of voice, 19 


Lowell, quoted, 74, 79 


Nasals, definition, 166 


Low key, 35 


exercises, 171 


McDonald, quoted, 78 


Nationality and time, 9 


Main idea, 19 


New ideas, and emphasis, 23 


and emphasis, 19 


development, 122 


looking for, 4 


Newman, quoted, 15 


Marginal notes, 205 


"New, The, South to New Eng- 


Markham, Edwin, quoted, 268 


land," 258 


Marking groups, 16 


New words, development of, 122 


Material, classification of, 130 


too many, 9 


difficult, 135 


New words made clear, 181 


for quick reading, 133 


New word, teaching of, 192 


for repeated reading, 132 


Number lessons, as obstacles, 149 


for sight reading, 137 


Obstacles to good expression, 144 


for thorough study, 130 


book, the, 146 


interest, 131 


language exercises, 151 


kinds, 130 


lists of words, 151 


quantity, 138 


mechanical difficulties, 146 


Material, right, 208 


mental attitude, 148, 149 


McMurry, Frank, quoted, 134 


number lessons, 149 


Mechanical difficulty, as obstacle, 


principles of oral reading, 149 


146 


relation of words, 147 


Mechanical directions, 8 


review and suggestion, 152 


Mechanical teacher, 13 


outline, 152 


Mechanics of reading, 3 


Oral reading, principles of, 149 


knowledge of, 3 


Outline, articulation, 178 


Median, stress, 41 


classification of material, 142 


Melody, 


Outline, division of recitation and 


analysis, 35 


assignment of lesson, 128 


and motive, 34 


effects, 79 


and discipline, 34 


force, 45 


in conversation, S3 


grouping, 18 


interpreting, 35 


melody, 39 


motive necessary, 34 


obstacles to good expression, 152 



INDEX 



277 



Outline, quality, 52 


Radical stress, 41 


time, 11 


Ralph Connor, quoted, 6 


types, 67 


Rapid time, examples, 4, 5, 6 


use of dictionary, 162 


Rapid utterance, 5 


Palatals, definition, 166 


Rate of utterance, 4 


exercises, 170 


Reading Field, The, LX 


Parables, 60 


Reading exercise, 196 


"Parable, A, on Brotherly Love," 


Reading to learn, IX 


244. 


Readers, supplementary, 126, 141 


Patronizing melody, 33 


Reading, declaiming, acting, 41 


Pauses, 13 


function of, 41 


Personification, 62 


sight, 141 


Phelps, Elizabeth Stuart, quoted, 


supplementary, 126, 141 


36 


tone, 144 


Phonic method, 83 


too slow, 8 


Phonic work, 180 


Reading, wrong idea of, 201 


Phonics, 105 


"Recessional, The," 264 


Phrases, poetic, 124 


Recitation, 196 


Pitch, 19 


Recitation, division of, 120 


analysis, 35 


Relations, of words, 147 


Planning lesson, 189 


sentences, 21 


Poetic words, 124 


Review and suggestion, articula- 


Preparation of lesson, 194 


tion, 179 


Preparing to use the Primer, 92 


classification of material, 143 


Primary lesson, 180 


division of recitation and 


Primary methods, 83 


assignment of lesson, 128 


Primary pupil and groups, 14 


effects, 79 


Principles of oral reading, 149 


force, 45 


Program, alternating, 127 


grouping, 18 


Pronouns, personal and emphasis, 


melody, 33 


23 


obstacles to good expression, 


Punctuation and grouping, 13 


152 


Pupil and groups, 14 


ordinary primary lesson, 187 


Purpose, of grouping, 13 


quality, 53 


of teacher in a lesson, 121 


silent reading and expression, 


Quality, aspirate, 49 


212 


bright, ringing, 47 


time, 11 


complex, 49 


types, 67 


dark, sombre, 47 


use of dictionary, 163 


defined, 46 


what the intermediate teacher 


Quality, examples, 47 


actually does, 198 


guttural, 48 


Review work, 181 


indicates emotion, 46 


Riddle, use of, 98 


normal, 47 


Right start, Value of, 109 


of emotion, 4 


Rising inflection, 35 


orotund, 48 


Room, divided for supplementary 


outline, 52 


reading, 126 


review and'suggestion, 53 


Rules and grouping, 15 


Questions and expression, 22 


Schools of teaching reading, 3 


Questions, use of, 210 


Scott, quoted, 64 



278 



INDEX 



Selection of lesson, 121 


Thought, units and punctuation, 14 


Sentence, inflection at end of, 36 


Thought, Getting the, 194 


method, 84 


Thought gleaning, 183, 203 


relations, 21 


Thoughtful readers, 96 


structure, 14 


Time, 3, 210 


Shakespeare, quoted, 7, 48, 49, 64, 


and nationality, 9 


? 8 


and temperament, 8 


"Sharp Wits," 223 


definition, 4 


Sight reading, 105, 141 


determined by, 4 


Silent reading and expression, 99, 


examples of, 10 


200 


in reading recitation, 1 20 


Simile, 59 


Time, rapid, examples, 5, 6 


Slow reading, too, 8 


slow, examples, 4, 6, 7 


Slow time, examples of, 4, 6, 7 


Tone, reading, 144 


Speaker, motive of, 19, 36 


Too slow reading, 8 


"Speech, John Adams," 7 


Training pupils to study, 134 


" Stone in the Road, The," 188 


Types, 57 


Stories, writing, 139 


definition, 57 


Story method, 85 


examples, 57 


Strength of emotion, 4 


outline, 67 


Stress, 41 


review and suggestion, 67 


Stress, final, 41 


Unfamiliarity with words, 9 


function, 41 


Unity of lesson, 23 


median, 41 


Units of thought, 13 


radical, 41 


of thought and punctuation, 14 


Structure of sentence, 14 


Use of dictionary, 154 


Substitution and expression. 22 


outline, 162 


Substitutions, use of, 210 


review and suggestion, 163 


Succession of ideas, 36 


Utterance, rapid, 5 


Suggestion in acting and declaim- 


Victor Hugo, quoted, 50 


ing, 41 


"Village Blacksmith," 16 


in reading, 41 


assignment, 125 


Supplementary, readers, 141 


Vital things in reading, 3 


reading, time, 126 


Voice, movement, 19 


Supplementary reading, 185 


"Wave and Tide," 255 


Synecdoche, 62 


Whittier, quoted, 50, 78 


Teacher, imitation of, 22 


Word cards, 93 


mechanical, 13 


Word drills, 100 


Teaching beginners to read, 83 


Word method, 84 


Teaching reading, schools of, 3 


Words, development of new, 122 


Teaching thought groups, 14 


emotional, 123 


Temperament and time, 8 


experimental, 123 


Tennyson, quoted, 37, 42, 47, 51, 


in groups, 13 


6 5 


poetic, 124 


Thought, and emotion, 8 


unfamiliarity with, 9 


and grouping, 13 


Work, assigned, 124 


in reading, importance of, 3 


of teacher, 8 


units, 13 


Wrong ideals, children, 145 



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